Abstract: Although China has experienced two Opium Wars and allows foreign ministers to be permanently stationed in Beijing, North Korea's ruling Heungseon Daewon still adheres to the policy of seclusion, and domestic public opinion has always been wary.

summary: Although China has experienced two Opium Wars and allows foreign ministers to be permanently stationed in Beijing, North Korea's ruling Heungseon Daewon still adheres to the policy of seclusion, and domestic public opinion has always been wary. After Gojong came to power in 1873, the policy changed, and the Treaty of Ganghwa Island was signed with Japan in 1876. During this period, North Korea hoped to obtain relevant foreign information from China. However, judging from the interactions between Zhang Shizhun, Wan Qingli, Li Hongzhang and North Korean envoys, Chinese scholars were concerned about North Korea's domestic public opinion and the suspicion of foreign ministers' diplomacy. It is quite cautious. Even if it is frank, it cannot play a big role due to the caution and stubbornness of most Korean scholars. After the establishment of diplomatic relations between South Korea and Japan, North Korea sent a letter-repairing envoy to Japan. Since then, it has attached great importance to understanding the outside world from Japan, and even sent gentlemen tour groups to Japan for inspection. On the contrary, it has not done anything similar to China. It only sends overseas students to study machinery manufacturing in China. I am afraid that this is partly due to the establishment of diplomatic relations between South Korea and Japan. Also here. At this time, the suzerain-vassal relationship had a good opportunity to make adjustments according to changes in the situation and better cope with the impact of the outside world. However, it ended up being full of scruples and sticking to the old ways, which laid the seeds for the subsequent end of the suzerain-vassal relationship.

On the eve of the Korean Peninsula entering modern times, the powerful Heungseon Daewuangun implemented a policy of expelling evil. After experiencing Bingyin's foreign harassment and Xinwei's foreign harassment , it implemented a strict policy of seclusion and was unwilling to make treaties and trade with Western countries. The monument of rebuke and harmony. Faced with the demands for treaties, trade, missionary work, and reconciliation between Western countries and Japan, the Korean government and the public could only regard war and defense as their righteousness. However, after Emperor Gojong came to power in 1873, North Korea's foreign policy changed rapidly, and the Treaty of Ganghwa Island was signed with Japan in 1876. North Korea has since been included in the modern international system, which is also regarded as the beginning of the modern history of the Korean Peninsula.

It only took two or three years from the change of foreign policy in 1873 to the opening of Hong Kong in 1876. Due to the extreme seclusion policy of Daewonjun, North Korea was seriously underprepared for foreign knowledge. Therefore, after 1873, it was eager to understand Japan and Russia. and other Western countries. At this time, North Korea’s only channel to understand the outside world was China. The above situation is also reflected in "Yan Xing Lu" in the early 1870s. Since the 18th century, the exchanges between North Korean envoys and Chinese scholar-officials have been expanding day by day, and Chinese scholar-officials’ thoughts have also undergone great changes after the Opium War. New books such as "海国图志" were also quickly spread through Yanxing Korea. So, at the level of actual interaction between North Korean envoys and Chinese scholar-bureaucrats, is there any in-depth communication between them on their understanding of the current situation and their countermeasures? This article uses "Yan Xing Lu" as the main material and gives a brief answer to this question by examining the interactions between North Korean envoys and Zhang Shizhun, Wan Qingli and Li Hongzhang. Although the number of people investigated is limited, these three people are representative. One is an ordinary official, one is the Minister of Rites who often receives Korean envoys, and the other is the Minister of Foreign Affairs who was later responsible for Korean affairs. The investigation of the interactions between these three people and Korean envoys before 1876 will not only help to understand the international knowledge reserves of the Korean government and the public before the opening of Hong Kong, but also analyze the sensitivity of the suzerain-vassal relationship in responding to changes in the overall world situation. It provides a useful perspective for us to understand the evolution of the later Qing-Korean suzerain-vassal relationship from a deeper level.

1. Zhang Shizhun

Zhang Shizhun, also known as Shuping, also known as Wuxi, also known as Meishi, was born in the sixth year of Daoguang (1826). He was elected in the 26th year of Daoguang (1846) and served as secretary of the cabinet. Later, he served as director and member of the Ministry of Punishment. Wailang. Gong Fangwei's "History of Epigraphy and Painting in the Two Dynasties of the Qing Dynasty" said that Zhang Shizhun was "good at painting ink plums, and his landscapes were dry and moist. He lived in Beijing for a long time and was as famous as Shanyin Zhou Shaobai. His calligraphy is also vigorous."

Zhou Shaobai, also known as Zhou Tang, had many contacts with North Korean envoys. "North Koreans who came to the capital always begged for his paintings." The same is true for Zhang Shizhun. In the second year of Tongzhi (1862), Pu Yongfu, who came to Beijing as the deputy envoy of Dongzhi and Xie En, was the first to make a deal with Zhang Shizhun. Since then, North Korean envoys have continued to communicate with him.Zhang Shizhun lives near Liulichang, adjacent to Wang Shizhen's former residence. North Korean envoys always go to Liulichang to visit after arriving in Beijing. Wang Shizhen is a domestic poet and is also highly respected by Korean literati, so it is appropriate to visit his home. very convenient. In the twelfth year of Tongzhi (1873), the Korean Winter Solstice envoy Zheng Jianchao and others came to Beijing "because they visited Ruanting's old residence and built their house."

However, unlike Zhou Tang, Zhang Shizhun was mainly praised by the Koreans for his calligraphy and poetry, and they praised him for his calligraphy and poetry. For example, Shin Hyun, who later signed the Ganghwa Island Treaty with Japan on behalf of North Korea and Japan, was a famous Confucian general who was also good at calligraphy and poetry. He loved Jang Shijun's calligraphy. He once asked dozens of his works to be criticized by Jang Shijun, hoping to get Jang Shijun's approval. Works, so Zhang Shizhun also sent dozens of works to him. Therefore, Jiang Wei later said in the poem "Presenting Zhang Wuxi to the Master of the World for Farewell": "A piece of Dharma book has a spiritual connection thousands of miles away, as small as chasing immortals on three islands. I have sent it and come here, and I feel pity after thinking about it." "

Park Yongfu was famous for his poetry and prose in North Korea. In Beijing, he also sang poetry and prose with Dong Wenhuan and others, and published a collection of poetry and prose. His interaction with Zhang Shizhun should also be based on poetry and singing. On October 24, the twelfth year of Tongzhi (1873), when the North Korean Winter Solstice envoy and his party set out, Li Jianchang gave Jiang Wei the "Selected Poems of Han Four Guests", a collection of songs he sang with Zheng Jiyu, Hong Qizhou, and Li Chongxia, and asked him to take it to Beijing. Asking Chinese literati to criticize, Jiang Wei immediately asked Zhang Shizhun to comment. Jiang Wei also brought his poem draft to Zhang Shizhun for criticism.

However, the biggest difference between Zhang Shizhun and Zhou Tang is that he is also famous among Koreans for his "concurrent policy theory", which Zheng Jianchao, Jiang Wei and others had heard about for a long time before entering Yan. It can be seen from this that Zhang Shizhun’s interactions with North Korean envoys were not limited to calligraphy and poetry, but also included his views on the current situation. After the Opium War, it is nothing new for North Korean envoys to occasionally engage in foreign affairs in their interactions with Chinese scholar-bureaucrats. For example, in the tenth year of Daoguang's reign (1859), when Daken, Jin Dexi, Min Zhixiang, Quan Shiheng and others had written discussions with Huang Juezi, Qian Jiang, Yang Xi, Ni Yinyuan and others, they not only involved Huang Juezi, Qian Jiang His personal experiences and the situation between China and Britain at the time of the Opium War also discussed the issue of North Korean armaments. Quan Baihan affirmed Quan Shiheng's practice of "recording many discussions with Chinese scholar-bureaucrats" in his Yan Xinglu in "The Preface to Shi Tuan Yan Ji", and said: "Read Shu Zhai Weng Jiuzhou Ba Li, Wuyue After four sentences, I suddenly felt that there were only a few birds, and the miscellaneous feelings of Yijiang in Dongpingzi were so heroic and generous. Every time he looked at his vigorous brows and the blood in his mouth, he could not help but sigh, and he would also have great hope in the future. You!"

However, Pu Guishou, who entered Yan twice in the 11th year of Xianfeng (1861) and the 11th year of Tongzhi (1872), noticed that the scholarly atmosphere in Beijing had changed greatly during this period. There is not much excitement, and there are as many aspiring people as Wang Guzhai who returns home to eat at home. The young newcomers are all good at poetry and writing, and there are no outstanding ones. Although they have many friends, they are just inviting people to drink and eat. Just laughing and having fun." Nan Yiyou, North Korea's Xie En and Winter Solstice deputy envoy who came to Beijing in the fifth year of Tongzhi's reign, also felt that Chinese scholar-bureaucrats were unwilling to have contact with North Korean envoys. He said: "Whenever the Han people have suspicions and refuse to give in, the Manchus will not accept the friendship, so it is not easy to get acquainted, or they can only talk in court." This feeling is naturally caused by changes in Chinese scholarly style, and also by factors from North Korea. Although Zhang Shizhun is also good at policy discussions among the Koreans, he claims that he is unwilling to discuss current affairs with the Koreans easily. The reason is that after the Second Opium War, China has basically accepted the situation of entering into treaties and trade with Western countries, and the Koreans For many years, he has always advocated war and defense, so he "has his own feelings, and no one is willing to complain to the Privy Council." In his conversation with Zheng Jianchao and others, Zhang Shizhun also mentioned that he had made friends with more than a dozen North Korean celebrities, but rarely talked about his true thoughts. Although he did touch on some of China's main battles and denouncements during the Opium War, If the discussion involves the slightest bit of content such as peace talks and trade, the North Koreans are not willing to listen. "My brother's nonsense has no origin.When I meet my distinguished brother alone, I have a clear mind. What I worry about is far away. That's why I don't criticize nonsense, and I am happy to report without getting tired of it. ”

The reason why Zhang Shizhun was willing to explain his views on the current situation in detail to the North Koreans this time was because Zheng Jianchao and others took the initiative to ask him for advice on whether Japan would invade North Korea because of their “long-term policy theory”. The content of this conversation is in It is rarely seen in "Yan Xing Lu", so it is of special significance to understand the interactions between North Korean envoys and Chinese scholar-bureaucrats. Although Zhang Shizhun was willing to talk heart-to-heart this time, it was not without taboos. Whenever "the writing is tight and proud, Everywhere, they are all criticized from below and thrown into the fire."

According to Jiang Wei's "Diary of a Journey to the North", it is speculated that the written conversation between Zheng Jianchao and others and Zhang Shizhun recorded in "Beizhao Tancao" should be on the tenth day of the first month of the thirteenth year of Tongzhi (1874) On the third day, the next day Jiang Wei visited again with Zheng Jianchao's letter. The content of the written conversation was the appendix of "Beizhao Tancao" and "Guhuan Tancao". Before and after this, Zheng Jianchao, Jiang Wei and others had many contacts with Zhang Shizhun, but they did not It does not involve current affairs. The written conversation on the 13th of the first lunar month was when Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei went to visit Zhang Shizhun from Yuhe Pavilion after breakfast and held it at Zhang Shizhun's Pisces Village. Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei returned at dusk, and the two sides talked for a whole day.

Zheng Jianchao The reason why He Jiang Wei asked Zhang Shizhun about the situation in Japan was because he heard that in the twelfth year of Tongzhi (1873), the Japanese envoys Soejima Taneomi and Yanagihara Maemitsu, who went to China to exchange approval documents for the " Sino-Japanese Repair Regulations", met with the Chinese emperor. There were talks of invading Korea from time to time, and I wanted to know the contents of the conversations between the Japanese envoys and the Chinese emperor and the Prime Minister's Yamen. In fact, Soejima Taneomi and others talked about the issue of conquering Korea during their talks with Li Hongzhang. The audience with Emperor Tongzhi was just a ceremony, not a formality. There may have been such an in-depth conversation. The reason why North Korea attached great importance to the Japanese envoys' meeting with Emperor Tongzhi was because they also met with the ministers of Britain, France, Russia, the United States and the Netherlands . North Korea was worried that Japan would join forces with other countries to invade. North Korea. Regarding the issue of Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei, Zhang Shizhun simply said: "This is a matter handled carefully by the Prime Minister's Yamen, and no one from the foreign court has heard about it. Although it may be heard by ears and eyes, it is nothing more than hearsay, which only confuses people's minds and is ultimately useless. However, the affairs of the world can be settled according to reason. If you don't ask about the matter, but only ask about the reason, then there is something you can say. I don't know what you mean, what do you think?" Zhang Shizhun's discussion from then on was based on this tone.

Zhang Shizhun started from the situation in China at that time. . Although the whole country of China hated foreigners, the emperor did not call for the expulsion of foreigners because he realized that "the general trend of today is very different from that of ancient times" and had to tolerate foreigners and adopt the policy of "ruling foreigners with my courtesy and justice", emphasizing "This is how the emperor governs the world." He pointed out that North Korea is now facing two major threats, Russia and Japan, and due to its strength, it can only "repair our etiquette and justice to show that it is insurmountable." He must not give up the strengths to the weaknesses. Talking about war easily. This was Zhang Shizhun's basic idea, which was exactly the opposite of North Korea's insistence on war and denouncement of peace at that time. Therefore, although Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei agreed with his point of view, they also mentioned that they could not explain this idea to the people after returning to the country, "Easy to talk about war." If you make this statement, you will offend the people of the country."

Regarding Zhang Shizhun's view that Russia and Japan are both major dangers to Korea, Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei asked: "The Japanese are provoking provocations, which is something our country cannot dream of, but as for the Russians, Especially the so-called wind, horse and cattle are not related to each other, what is the situation and still worry about trouble?" Zhang Shizhun emphasized that Russia and Japan have close relations and may unite to invade North Korea. This is what North Korea is worried about, so Zheng Jianchao asked the Japanese envoy again When meeting Emperor Tongzhi and meeting with Li Hongzhang, Zhang Shizhun still used the secret code of the military affairs to evade the situation. In the end, Zheng Jianchao had no choice but to ask him to express his opinion "based on what he heard and based on what he heard." So Zhang Shizhun said that although Japan It also has close relations with Britain, France and other countries, but we cannot just rely on speculation as to whether it will unite to invade North Korea. For North Korea, what is important is not whether Japan will invade South Korea or whether it will unite with other countries to invade, but whether it will unite with other countries to invade. Self-improvement, so he said: "If I am prepared, I will pay for the war, and the power belongs to me. If I am unprepared and listen to others, China is so big that it cannot bear the suffering."Those who look forward to your country are fortunate to learn from China and have already planned to strengthen themselves. " Zhang Shizhun also added a circle to this sentence, which was also a proposition he wanted to emphasize.

However, at that time, the North Korean government and the public had not yet realized the seriousness of the dispute between South Korea and Japan, and had to wait until the war broke out before they would change course, so Zheng Jianchao wanted to know about Japan When will the war be launched? This is of course a difficult question to answer. Zhang Shizhun only speculated that Russia, Britain, France and other countries will not immediately join forces with Japan to invade North Korea, and North Korea should still have time to seek self-strength. Zheng Jianchao also mentioned that North Korea Since Bingyin's foreign disturbance, he has also been reorganizing his armaments. However, because he does not understand the foreign situation, he has no confidence in victory. Therefore, he hopes that Zhang Shizhun "explains in detail the strengths and weaknesses of each other." Zhang Shizhun also emphasized the importance of understanding foreign situations. He talked about It explains the changes in Chinese people’s understanding of the West, and emphasizes that the Chinese have been living with foreign barbarians for more than ten years since they allowed foreign envoys to be stationed in Beijing, and they are at peace with each other, which shows that it is different from the wars caused by the inward migration of ethnic minorities in history, and that “the skills of the barbarians have These are all unheard of in ancient times, such as the movement of steamboats, boats and carriages, the speed of electric motors in sending letters, the convenience of railways and dirt roads, and the sophistication of guns and artillery. Relocating capital and trade means that the desire of the barbarians is not based on the people of the land, but only on opening up foreign lands. This is something we did not expect. People from all countries gathered together, willing to listen to the public discussion, but did not assert their own opinions. They used the unruly behavior of the British and barbarians to listen to others, and once again gave way to the territory. When they saw the barbarians, they knew that they should take the lead, and did not rely solely on their strength. , this brother said that I can still rule the barbarians with my courtesy and justice." This is probably what Zhang Shizhun said about the great changes in the world. Therefore, in such a great change, the strategy of preventing barbarians must also change. Therefore, he suggested that North Korea send overseas students to study in China, not only to understand the situation in foreign countries, but also to allow foreigners to understand North Korea. "Because it is good to connect the two countries and relieve each other's past regrets, it is reasonable seven times out of ten."

However, Zheng Jianchao admitted that the domestic public opinion in North Korea was "too strong to end the war", and as an important minister at the time, he had to make arrangements, so he was still more concerned about North Korea's good strategies from the perspective of war and defense. In this regard, Zhang Shizhun I didn’t want to say more, but just said: “It is beyond the power of man and God to stop fighting and retreat. "However, "things are not determined by nature, but by people." From the perspective of what humans can do, North Korea may be able to fortify its walls and clear the country, and hold on to the danger. However, this strategy may be used to deal with Russia, but the threat from North Korea is not limited to Russia. , "When the barbarians raise an army, they must unite with the Japanese. If the Japanese invade the southern border, the Japanese invade the northern border, and the western barbarians attack its heart, they will ravage a country with more than a few survivors." Once such a situation occurs, no matter how good the strategy is, it will be useless. Therefore, Zhang Shizhun emphasized that it is still necessary to understand foreign countries and try to resolve disputes. Zhang Shizhun also mentioned that Yi Sunshen also learned from the "Wubei Zhi" written by Mao Yuanyi that the Japanese were not used to water warfare, so they were able to win, so he emphasized: " Nowadays, the book on the situation of the various countries in the West is collected in the capital, so that those with foresight can read it and know what to choose. The reason why this brother likes to be my brother is because he understands the feelings of others and me, and makes good use of opportunities. There may not be any other clever ideas that can be sought. "

When the two sides talked about this, Zheng Jianchao said: "Brother, this argument can be said to be mutually exclusive, leaving nothing behind. "However, Zheng Jianchao still emphasized that the domestic public opinion in North Korea was blindly focused on war. He also "suggested war and never dared to use words to implement policies." Therefore, what Zhang Shizhun said is temporarily useless to North Korea. North Korea can only rely on China to strengthen itself. Later, the clarification was accomplished, and North Korea was able to protect itself; so he asked Zhang Shizhun for advice on China's internal repair strategy. In fact, he wanted to explore whether China had the ability to protect the country and defend the country from enemies. Zhang Shizhun was even more reluctant to say anything about this, and was evasive. He said that it was beyond the power of an official like him who had been out of tune for ten years, so he should discuss the matter with the Privy Council Secretary. The conversation between the two parties ended here.

Obviously, Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Weixi were not yet exhausted, so Jiang Wei brought them again the next day. In response to Zheng Jian's letter, he went to visit Zhang Shizhun again. After meeting Zhang Shizhun, Jiang Wei first asked: "Is the conversation yesterday just over? Zhang Shizhun also admitted: "This is only half of the article." " Jiang Wei asked if he could continue writing the second half of the article. Zhang Shizhun said: "If it is not timely, then yesterday's conversation has been redundant.And the first half of the text can still be done, but the second half of the text cannot be done. The things in the first half can still be done, but the things in the second half cannot be done. The reason why Zhang Shizhun believed that "the second half of the article cannot be written" was because he was worried that "if the words are leaked, it will not only be useless but also defeat the cause." Jiang Wei said that they would never dare to leak it, and in Zhang Shizhun thinks this is impossible, because "I don't dare to do it. However, if I want to hear this, I want to benefit the country. How can I keep it secret and stop to observe success or failure to see whether it is true or not?" ? However, I have to show it to others, and if I hear about it in the court and wait for the whole country to be successful, even if I want to do it, don't let it go, can I get it? "In fact, it was just as Zhang Shizhun expected. Li Jianchang mentioned that after Jiang Wei returned to China, he compiled the contents of his written conversations with Chinese scholar-bureaucrats and showed them to him. The contents were "all taboo in the past and made people horrified", and Jiang Wei " "Reading, sighing and laughing, the spirit flows", Li Jianchang was silent and speechless. Not only Li Jianchang and other friends have seen it, but it should also be widely circulated in Korea. In October of the sixth year of Guangxu (1880), Jin Pingmo's "Strategy Briefs" was suspected. When "North Korean Strategy" was written by the North Koreans under the guise of Huang Zunxian, it also mentioned "Bei Xuan Tan Cao". Jin Pingmo said: "Jiang Ziqi Yan Xuan Tan Cao is probably similar to this, and may not all be Zhang Shizhun's words. "

Obviously, Zhang Shizhun was disappointed with Zheng Jianchao's repeated remarks that North Korean public opinion was blindly focused on war and that he was powerless. He felt that he was not completely different from the North Korean scholar-bureaucrats he had interacted with before. Indeed, Zhang Shizhun's grand remarks may not have much impact on Zheng Jianchao. . Although Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei had a close relationship and both paid attention to current affairs, Jiang Wei was a scholar in the field, while Zheng Jianchao was an important minister in the court, so Zheng Jianchao had to be more cautious. After Zheng Jianchao returned to China, when he returned to Gaozong, although The explanation for the reason why Emperor Tongzhi met with the envoys from Japan and the five Western countries was similar to Zhang Shizhun's explanation, but it emphasized that there were objections from the imperial censor and the opinions were not adopted. As a result, Gaozong felt that China's "discipline and regulations were weaker than before, showing weakness to foreign countries". Zheng Jianchao followed Gao Zong's wishes and further emphasized that this was the result of China's appeasement strategy against foreign barbarians since the Second Opium War, and expressed concern about China's future. When Gao Zong asked whether China would expel foreign barbarians At that time, Zheng Jianchao replied: "Chinese people have this intention, and the foreign barbarians have been staying here for a long time. It must be due to the situation that sudden difficulties can drive Chuyun away. " Regarding Zhang Shizhun's core views, Zheng Jianchao did not mention a word. Even when Gaozong summoned the former minister and senior official of the Yijin Hall to discuss whether to accept the Japanese deed on the second day of May in the first year of Guangxu (1875), Zheng Jianchao had no idea about his The proposition was only vaguely expressed: "If we resign and retreat now, the friendship between neighbors will be harmed. However, given the nature of the matter, it is difficult to put it into perspective, so I hope to make a decision based on extensive inquiry. "After that, he became even more silent when discussing foreign disturbances and coastal defense issues.

Jiang Wei originally had "three teachings and nine streams, all of which were integrated, and he was especially devoted to the Four Sons' books, occasionally entering into the words of Sun and Wu, and he was good at discussing world affairs. "Those who regard the secular world as unconventional and unresponsive are like a disease of themselves." He "made friends with famous scholars and officials" in Beijing and "explored all the recent affairs in China and the West", probably because he was well prepared. It is also because of this The first trip to Yan was very fruitful, so the following year he went to Yan again with Li Jianchang, the petitioner of the winter solstice and a thank-you envoy. During this trip to Yan, Jiang Wei also brought a letter from Zheng Jianchao to Zhang Shizhun. On the way, Jiang Wei wrote a letter to Zheng Jianchao. It said: "You should pay attention to both Shuhou and Yizhai, and send a grand letter. "Li Jianchang is not only Jiang Wei's poetic friend, but he also "pays close attention to the names of foreigners in Ming history and the traces of recent wars and peace in China." After arriving in Beijing, he also had contacts with Zhang Shizhun. This winter solstice, Xie En's deputy envoy Shen Luze's "The Journey of Yan" "Records" records that he met with Zhang Shizhun because of Li Jianchang. On the 26th of the first month of the fourteenth year of Tongzhi (1875), when the three envoys traveled to Liulichang, they also visited Zhang Shizhun. However, Li Jianchang and Jiang Wei met Zhang Shizhun this time. Li Jianchang's contacts with Zhang Shizhun do not seem to be close. Li Jianchang's "Beiyou Poetry" and Jiang Wei's "Beiyou Xucao" do not contain any harmonious poems with Zhang Shizhun. Li Jianchang's closer contacts were with Huang Yu, Zhang Jiaxiang , Xu Yu, etc. . Jiang Wei's "Gu Huantang Collecting Grass" contains a conversation with Huang Yu.Because the Ministry of Rites of the Qing Dynasty consulted North Korea at that time, Japan might send troops to North Korea after withdrawing its troops from Taiwan. Jiang Wei wanted to inquire about the details and asked Huang Yu about several issues in China's exchanges with Western countries since the Opium War. Unfortunately, we can only see the questions drafted by Jiang Wei, but not Huang Yu’s answers. It is also unknown whether he and Huang Yu had a written discussion on these issues.

In any case, after Jiang Wei returned to China this time, because the domestic situation in North Korea had changed a lot, he "explained a little bit of what it contained, and became famous", and served as an assistant to Shen Shi to sign the "Ganghwa Island Treaty" with Japan. ”, but after that Jiang Wei was still depressed and frustrated, and even more so was his poverty. Zhang Shizhen abandoned his official position and left Beijing, and traveled to the famous mountains and rivers in Sichuan and Guizhou. He did not return to Yuanling to settle down until the seventh year of Guangxu (1881).

2. Wanqingji

Wanqingji was transferred to the position of Minister of Rites in November of the fourth year of Tongzhi (1865). He held this position for more than ten years and had frequent contact with Korean envoys. In the fifth year of Tongzhi (1866), Li Xingmin, the North Korean winter solstice envoy who came to Beijing, met Wanqingli and mentioned Bingyin's foreign harassment in a letter to Wanqingli the following year. Although the content was roughly the same as the message from the King of Joseon to the Ministry of Rites of the Qing Dynasty, after receiving the letter, Wan Qingli felt that it was against the system to discuss the matter in a private letter, so he attached Li Xingmin's letter to the Joseon message and sent it along. The Ministry of Rites' message to the King of Korea was sent back to North Korea. The Korean court also believed that accompanying ministers should not write private letters to Qing ministers and punished Li Xingmin. In the first month of the 10th year of Tongzhi (1871), the American Minister Naphtha asked the Prime Minister's Office to send a letter to North Korea through the Korean Minister. The Prime Minister's Office openly refused, but secretly approved the delivery through the Ministry of Etiquette. Although the Ministry of Rites handed over the letter to the Ministry of War on February 2nd and forwarded it to North Korea via the post station, it had objections to the practices of the Prime Minister's Yamen, so at the same time as the letter was being forwarded, it was reported to all the tributary states as follows: OK, we have never forwarded letters. Due to the system, we have to abide by the old rules. This time, a letter from the United States was approved by the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office and forwarded to North Korea by the Ministry. It was naturally a temporary expedient. Therefore, I do not dare to be rigid. Secondly, I am afraid that foreign countries will apply for licenses one after another, and there will be obstacles and difficulties in the future. If there are letters from various countries in the future, I will still abide by the old rules and not deliver them on behalf of the whole system."

The above two incidents are enough to show that Wan Qingli, as the Minister of Rites, adheres to the tribute system, but it does not mean that Wan Qingli personally does not care about the situation in North Korea. On the contrary, he paid great attention to the movement to denounce evil and defend justice in North Korea. When the Prime Minister's Office asked the Ministry of Rites to deliver the letter from the United States to North Korea, the North Korean Winter Solstice envoy was in Beijing and should have heard about the whole story. Therefore, after Jiang Zhu returned to China, he said when he entered the palace on April 17: "The Ministry of Rites has repeatedly blocked this message, and Prince Gong has also urged him to send it. Now the whole world knows that our country will not trade. , if there is a promise of peace, the world will laugh." Therefore, Wanqingli won a good reputation in North Korea. Moreover, he agreed with Daewongun's policy of seclusion and even had contact with Daewongun. On the second day of February in the thirteenth year of Tongzhi (1874), Wan Qingli mentioned in a conversation with Zheng Jianchao, the Korean winter solstice envoy, and others that Lord Dayuan had given him a Mohu engraved with the four characters "Expelling Evil and Defending Righteousness" years ago. Wan Qingli agreed with North Korea's policy of "expelling evil and defending justice", but he never mentioned it publicly in his interactions with others. Even the Mo Hua given to him by Lord Dayuan was kept secret for fear of being leaked and known to other countries.

During this period, Wan Qingli had close contacts with North Korean envoys, including those who later disagreed with Da Yuanjun on the policy towards Japan. In the eleventh year of Tongzhi (1872), Pu Guishou congratulated the envoy to Yan, and he had close contacts with Wan Qingli. Wan Qingli insisted on treating him as a brother, so Pu Guishou later wrote to Wan Qingli as "Yongsou Shangshu brother" "Your Excellency" is appropriate. Park Guishou once went to the Ecun Bookstore in Wanqingli to have a private conversation with him. After Pu Guishou returned to China, he wrote in a letter to Wan Qingli: "When I was in the capital, I only met privately again and again, mostly to discuss matters. If I am an academic and economic man, I have long wanted to challenge the elegant people, but I can't do it." Then, the "academic economy" discussed by Park Guishou and Wan Qingli should also involve current affairs. Park Guishou said in another letter to Wan Qingli: "Even when the minister comes to the country, there are also worries, which is unusual.I had a conversation in this village and I thought about this, so why don't I just relax! "

In the twelfth year of Tongzhi (1873), the North Korean Winter Solstice envoy Zheng Jianchao and others also hoped to have a chance to have a private conversation with Wanqing Li after they arrived in Beijing. On the seventh day of the first lunar month in the thirteenth year of Tongzhi (1874), Zheng Jianchao sent a first translator to deliver a letter to Wanqing Wan Qingli asked to meet, but Wan Qingli asked to have something to do and said that he would inform the North Korean envoy when he had time, and there was no need to ask frequently. There was still no news until the end of the first year. Zheng Jianchao and others couldn't wait any longer, so they sent their first translator to inquire. Qing Li agreed to meet with the three envoys from North Korea on the second day of February. On this day, the three envoys from North Korea came to Wan Qing Li's house, and Wan Qing Li also received them at the Jicun Bookstore. The content of this conversation is also recorded in "

"Beihuang Tancao" specifically states that because this conversation "talks about emotions, it will be destroyed along with the book to prevent the words from leaking out." After returning to the embassy, ​​the three envoys sat together and memorized the meaning of the words, but they could not recite the entire article, so it is not similar to the Chinese and Korean pens, and those who read it will forgive it." It can be seen that Wan Qingli was quite cautious about this conversation, and he probably had to refuse it repeatedly before. The reasons for this.

In this conversation, Wan Qingli was very concerned about North Korea's military equipment and mentioned the benefits of China's establishment of Shenji Camp . Zheng Jianchao and others explained that North Korea has also attached great importance to military equipment since Bingyin's foreign interference. , and further emphasized that "Shipo Junhou has worked hard for ten years, and Zhuan used it to fight against the Rong. All the methods of selection and refinement are not used to the extreme." However, "how can we predict whether it will be used or not?" Look exclusively up to the Celestial Dynasty and provide guidance on strategies for victory."

Like Zhang Shizhun, Wan Qingli also believed that Korea's major troubles lay in Russia and Japan. He said: "Your country seems to have two troubles, the Japanese in the east and the Japanese in the north. Russia. The Russians have become stronger recently and are eager to invade and occupy neighboring countries. It is especially advisable to be prepared and take strict precautions. " Zheng Jianchao and others said that North Korea had never expected to provoke Japan without any reason, and it knew nothing about Russia, so North Korea particularly wanted to know the situation in Russia and Japan. Regarding this question, Wanqingli did not answer directly, just said "If he comes with courtesy, I will answer him with courtesy. If he doesn't come with courtesy, I will reject him with courtesy. Be careful not to cause any provocation." "It can be seen that although Wan Qingli agrees with North Korea's policy of "expelling evil and safeguarding justice" and recommends that North Korea strengthen its military preparedness, he also hopes that North Korea will not easily conflict with foreign countries. Perhaps Zheng Jianchao and others also feel that Wan Qingli is self-centered in his opinions. It was a contradiction, so I didn’t understand Wan Qingli’s intention when he said this. Just when he was about to ask further, Wan Qingli wrote on another piece of paper: “Those who are still afraid of your country among the foreign barbarians will stick to Shipo to repel evil. Gong also. "He heard that Mr. Dayuan was suffering from an eye disease and could not handle government affairs normally, so he was worried that foreign countries would take the opportunity to force North Korea to conclude a trade treaty. Then he talked about the situation in Japan. Wan Qingli also believed that Japan "is a newly created foreign country" and has no relationship with North Korea. The Japanese-Western unity theory of the denunciation of the evil guards is similar. Zheng Jianchao and others also asked about the situation of Western countries. Wan Qingli mentioned that France is at war with Vietnam , which is probably the same as Zhang Shizhun. From this, it is judged that Western countries will not fight with them for the time being. Japan jointly invaded North Korea.

The reason why North Korea was unwilling to enter into treaties and trade with Western countries was that it was worried that opium would flow into North Korea. On the way to Yan, Zheng Jianchao and others heard that the Qing Dynasty's smoking ban was not very strict, and Wan Qingli also admitted that the smoking ban was limited to Kinki. , but other provinces did not interfere, and said: "During Daoguang, the prohibitions were too strict, which led to foreign changes. This is because Lin Wenzhonggong Xu cannot think deeply about his fault." "The spread of Catholicism is another issue that North Korea is worried about, so Zheng Jianchao and others asked again: "China is so vast and contains a vast territory, just like the earth is all-encompassing. However, how can we tolerate foreign learning and mistakes in the best place without gradual contamination? Is there any concern?" Wan Qingli replied: "In China, no scholar or official is tainted with evil cults. Those who are tainted with evil will just rise and die on their own. "It can be seen that Wan Qingli is also quite conservative in his attitude towards Catholicism.

Finally, Wan Qingli mentioned his concerns about having private contact with the North Korean envoy. He said: "My position is suitable for the Ministry of Rites, so I can communicate with your country. When envoys are handed over, if they move to another department, there is no need to connect with each other. The imperial court also discussed it, so You didn't dare to do it. Zheng Jianchao and others said: "China and the DPRK are kind and friendly to a small country, and your Excellency is a friend to Shipo. How can you not go beyond the rules in your position?""Although Zheng Jianchao and others said this, when they met with Wan Qingli again, Wan Qingli still declined on the grounds that he was not available. It was not until the third day of the second lunar month that the three envoys went to the Ministry of Rites to receive the banquet. They did not see the banquet host again. Wan Qingli and Wan Qingli never met in private again.

In fact, before Zheng Jianchao and others had a private conversation with Wan Qingli, Dayuan Jun had already claimed illness and resigned from power. It is not yet known what impact the closely related Tennis terrestris has. In June of the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874), the Frenchman Prosper Marie Giquel predicted that Japan might join France and the United States to attack Japan after withdrawing from Taiwan. During the invasion of North Korea, the Prime Minister's Yamen once again asked for secret consultation with North Korea through the Ministry of Rites, and the Ministry of Rites still complied with the request. On June 29, Park Guishou, who served as the right councilor, sent Wan Qingli a letter through the counselor sent to Beijing by North Korea. This matter was also mentioned in the letter, indicating that the Joseon court was discussing countermeasures and sent counselors to Beijing to ask for instructions. Park Guishou emphasized in the letter: "The Eastern Kingdom is not skilled in military affairs, and the situation is peaceful and peaceful. It is said that repairing armor is used to manage the army." , Just talk loudly and don't know what to say about attacking and destroying troops. They only boast about Jia Yong's victory. How can he know that he knows his enemy and himself? "Park Guishu hoped that Wanqingli could help mediate, and China would invoke the clause in the "Sino-Japanese Reconciliation Regulations" that the territories of both parties must not infringe to dissuade Japan. He said: "There is nothing that China and North Korea can do to resolve disputes. Know it. However, I have heard that Japan's treaty stated that it would not invade China's vassal states. Now that Japan has come to Beijing to set up a pavilion, it must have someone in charge just like the foreigners. According to the treaty, he would be questioned and given advice without hesitation. If the imperial court is thinking about this, it will really solve the difficult problem. Isn't this the duty of the official of the Ministry of Rites? However, when the great people of China and the DPRK recite this saying, it is not unreasonable. Fortunately, I pay attention to it, so what? "

The counselor brought back Wan Qingli's reply, "Gengen has thousands of words, and his love is sincere." Unfortunately, I didn't see the original text, so I don't know what Wan Qingli talked about. By this time, Pu Guishou had resigned from the right political committee. This year, when the Korean Winter Solstice envoy went to Yan, Park Guishou also asked someone to bring a letter to Wan Qingli, but he did not mention current affairs such as negotiations between North Korea and Japan. Lee Huizheng, the North Korean Winter Solstice envoy, and his deputy Envoy Shen Luze, petitioner Li Jianchang, and Jiang Wei who followed Li Jianchang to Beijing also have no records of private conversations with Wan Qingli. Wan Qingli's reply to Pu Guishou was only some greetings. By the first year of Guangxu (1875) ) In November, the North Korean court finally decided to accept the Japanese deed. It can be seen that Wan Qingli was more cautious about contacting North Koreans privately after Daewuanjun stepped down, and did not play an important role in the critical period of North Korean policy changes.

3. Li Hongzhang

Tongzhi In the eleventh year (1872), Pu Guishou met Wu Dachang when he came to Beijing as a congratulatory envoy. Wu Dachang gave him a set of "Zeng Wenzheng Wenchao". He later said in a letter to Wu Dachang: "I read it after returning and admired Qin. I wish I could reach the door while I am still alive, so that I can see the whole world. The merits of articles, academics and economics are all-round and well-equipped, and they have not been as prosperous as those of previous generations. Overshadowed by the Holy Age, this great man was born and exhaled for Confucian scholars. This book is just a manuscript. It is unknown whether the complete collection can be reproduced. It is a quick glance, but it may not be easy to obtain. Duke Zeng died in Renshen, and in what year did Yue Jiang live? How long was his lifespan? "It can be seen from this that although Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Li Hongzhang and others were already powerful in China at that time and famous all over the world, Korean scholar-officials like Park Guishou who cared about current affairs still knew very little about them.

In fact, on the 11th of Tongzhi In 1872 (1872), after the Prime Minister's Office requested the Ministry of Rites to deliver the letter of the American Minister Rofield to North Korea, on the first day of February, a letter was sent to Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, Minister of Commerce of the North and South, asking them to guard against Japan secretly helping the American Minister Rofield to go there. Goryeo provoked provocation. As the Minister of Beiyang, Li Hongzhang has been paying attention to North Korea's defense since this period and has always played an important role in the North Korean issue.

In the first month of the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874), Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei also mentioned Li Hongzhang in their written talks with Zhang Shizhun. . Zheng Jianchao said: "I heard that the Japanese envoys returned to Tianjin and met with Prime Minister Li and threatened to invade our country. Prime Minister Li rebuked Yun with words."But Zheng Jianchao did not know the name of "Prime Minister Li" at this time, nor did he know his official position, nor did he know why the Japanese envoy went to Tianjin to talk to Li Hongzhang about the Korean issue. Zhang Shizhun explained: "Prime Minister Li, named Hongzhang, has repeatedly After establishing great military exploits and meritorious service, he reached the position of Taisi. However, Yi Jifu was too troubled and he was appointed governor of Zhili. After the death of Zeng Wenzhenggong, he took up this position. The imperial court relied on the Great Wall, and the foreign officials were also convinced. He did not believe in the alliance between Jin and Chu, but asked Ji Lu for a word. Li Xiang was probably close to him, so the trouble was eliminated. How lucky he was!" Zheng Jianchao and others wanted to know the specific content of the meeting between Japanese envoy Soejima Taneomi and Li Hongzhang. Since the relevant content had been transmitted to North Korea, Zheng Jianchao and others believed that the matter should not be kept confidential. Zhang Shizhun should be able to tell the truth in detail, but Zhang Shizhun still said that He refused to answer this question on the grounds that it was "a secret message from military officials" and advised Zheng Jianchao and others not to believe the rumors.

In the 13th year of Tongzhi's reign (1874), the North Korean envoy who came to Beijing to congratulate and express gratitude was also very concerned about Li Hongzhang, but The information obtained was often spread through rumors. After returning to China, when Emperor Gaozong asked whether there were many Westerners and Japanese in Beijing, deputy envoy Li Chunyi replied: "There are only a few foreigners, and the Japanese are even fewer than those in other countries." In September, nearly 10,000 foreigners came to Tianjin, and there were many requests for marriage, tax collection from Tongzhou and Tianjin, etc. Li Hongzhang, the governor of Zhili, had the wisdom to form an array in Tianjin to reject them. If the foreigners invaded, they would He immediately informed the court that he wanted to destroy them. This is not something that can be seen from literary relics, but from rumors. "

After the "Yunyang Incident" occurred in August of the first year of Guangxu (1875), Japan's Sen. Sen politely went to China as envoy and also went to Baoding to hold talks with Li Hongzhang. The North Korean side was also very concerned about the content of this talk. This year's Li Yuyuan, the envoy of the Joseon Dynasty, included in his "Jicha Rilu" "Li Zhongtang of Baoding Prefecture, Tianjin and the Japanese envoy Sen's polite questions and answers", but it was marked as "The message of the Ministry of Rites in the capital will be delivered immediately", which shows that it is a copy of the message of the Ministry of Rites. However, in a later letter from Li Hongzhang to the Prime Minister’s Office, he mentioned that Li Yuyuan had secretly discussed peace and war strategies with Jige and others when he was in Beijing. Because of this, when Li Yuyuan passed by Yongping Mansion on his way back to China, he took the initiative to ask You Zhikai offered to make friends with Li Hongzhang. When You Zhikai asked why, Li Yuyuan also expressed his hope to discuss current affairs with Li Hongzhang. He recorded in "Jicha Rilu": "Yu Suidao said that Japan-related matters are like national affairs for me to discuss, but this is not the case. Nothing can be done in the nave. Later, when Li Yuyuan explained his intention at this time, he also said that because Li Hongzhang "is the chief minister of the Central Plains, he may have the ability to support him."

At Li Yuyuan's repeated requests, You Zhikai agreed to forward the letter to him. From then on, Li Yuyuan and Li Yuyuan Li Hongzhang established an exchange of letters between them. Li Hongzhang may have heard that Li Yuyuan showed better insight and strategy than ordinary Koreans in his interactions with Jige and others, and felt that he was "sophisticated and well-informed about current affairs." , so he was willing to correspond with him and wanted to influence North Korea's foreign policy. However, until the North Korean winter solstice on March 21, 1876, when North Korea sent Nan Tingshun and others back to life, Gaozong was still asking " Who is Li Hongzhang? What's the matter?" question, which shows that Gaozong still didn't understand Li Hongzhang. Regarding Gaozong's question, Nan Tingshun replied: "Fang Yizhili, who lived in Tianjin, was prestige, and the Japanese invaders were suppressed, and people relied on it to suppress them. The cloud is gone. "The petitioner Yin Zhidan added: "The general outline is contained in the records of hearing and seeing. "It can be seen that understanding Li Hongzhang's situation has become one of the main contents of North Korea Yan's exercise in targeting the country. Therefore, North Korea has more and more understanding of Li Hongzhang. In the fourth year of Guangxu (November 28, 1878), he returned and announced his obituary as a servant. At that time, Gaozong once asked: "Now Prince Gong does not intervene in the government affairs, but Li Hongzhang is in charge?" Hong Zaizan, the petitioner, said: "Of course." It can be seen that Gaozong has grasped the changes in the political situation of the Qing Dynasty.

However, Li Hongzhang was Almost nothing is known about the domestic situation in North Korea. On July 4, the fifth year of Guangxu's reign (1879), the Prime Minister's Office requested that through the correspondence between Li Hongzhang and Li Yuyuan, all the articles stated by Ding Richang in May should be conveyed to North Korea as Li Hongzhang's personal wishes. , to persuade North Korea to conclude treaties and trade with Western countries. Until this time, Li Hongzhang still did not know much about Li Yuyuan's situation. He said in the memorial: "Although Li Yuyuan is now an official, it is said that he is the uncle of the king. He has been Yuan Fu for a long time, and he still has the authority to preside over it." When it comes to major political affairs, he is also well aware of current affairs. If he can consult extensively and prepare for a rainy day, it will be beneficial to the overall situation.At that time, although the Prime Minister's Office believed that "the desire of European and Western countries to trade with North Korea was of great concern to the overall situation," they were rigidly adhered to the vassal system and considered that "the country's political and religious prohibitions are difficult to impose undesirably, and it is inconvenient for the court to express this intention to North Korea." I wish to be granted a vassalship, but I cannot ignore it." So I had no choice but to adopt this tactic. However, not only was the personal relationship between Li Hongzhang and Li Yuyuan unreliable, but I was also overly optimistic about Li Yuyuan's character and his status and role in the Korean political situation. It is estimated. Although Li Yuyuan once served as a councilor, he resigned before going to China as an envoy in the first year of Guangxu and took up the sinecure position of a councillor. He also took the initiative to alienate himself from the center of power and often lived in his hometown. He not only resigned from various part-time jobs, but also served as a minister. Shu begged to retire. In early November of the fifth year of Guangxu (1879), he went to Beijing temporarily to attend the court meeting on the tenth day of the lunar month. As soon as the court meeting was over, he wanted to return to his hometown.

In September of this year (1879), Li Hongzhang persuaded North Korea to make peace with foreigners and ward off the Japanese. A letter was sent to Li Yuyuan. It was delayed for more than a month because Li Yuyuan was recuperating in his hometown. After Li Yuyuan returned to Hanyang, he discussed with the ministers and directly rejected Li Hongzhang's suggestion. On November 12, Li Yuyuan wrote a reply. It was handed over to Xie En and the Winter Solstice envoy who were still in Yizhou and brought to China, so that they could forward it to Li Hongzhang through You Zhikai. When they arrived at Yongping Mansion, because You Zhikai was not there, they had to take the letter to Beijing. December 26 , First Translation Bian Yuangui heard that You Zhikai was outside Beijing, so he went to Wu Gu to deliver the letter. On the 17th of the first month of the following year (1880), Bian Yuangui went to Baoding to discuss military affairs with Li Hongzhang, but was blocked by the Yamen Admiral, and formally made a request to the Ministry of Rites , and was not approved. Later, a North Korean counselor went to Tianjin and came back to tell Li Yuyuan that Li Hongzhang regretted that the matter did not work. After that, Li Hongzhang wrote to Li Yuyuan again, but Li Yuyuan did not reply. In the seventh year of Guangxu (1881), Xin already During the campaign to denounce evil, Li Yuyuan was attacked for his private correspondence with Li Hongzhang and was sentenced to tampering.

Li Hongzhang and Li Yuyuan had an informal communication channel through letters. Although the Prime Minister's Office requested that this channel be used to persuade North Korea to conclude treaties with Western countries The trade gained some legitimacy, but it did not bring about fundamental changes in the vassal system, nor did it play a very important role in the Qing-Korean exchanges in modern times. However, although North Korea rejected Li Hongzhang's suggestion, it still treated Li Hongzhang everywhere I am still grateful for protecting North Korea. On the second day of April in the sixth year of Guangxu (1880), when I thanked him and returned my mission to the Winter Solstice, Emperor Gaozong said: "It is not accidental that Li Hongzhang always thinks about our country's affairs. Han Jingyuan, the envoy, also said: "I am very impressed by his intentions." "

However, North Koreans also have different understandings of Li Hongzhang. Li Jianchang had a very negative evaluation of Li Hongzhang's urging North Korea to conclude treaties and trade with Western countries, showing extreme distrust. He said: "Li Hongzhang wrote to me in order to achieve peace. At that time, everyone called him Hongzhang, a famous official in China, and his words were trustworthy. Jianchang Du said: Hongzhang is a great philistine. However, the current situation has taken its course, and I cannot rely on myself but rely on Hongzhang, otherwise I will be betrayed later. "The reason why Li Jianchang's attitude is like this is probably related to the negative impression left on him by Yan Xing. Li Jianchang said in his "Epitaph of Jiang Guhuan": "I will go to Yan again tomorrow, and you will follow. What I see and hear may be the same as yours, but I certainly don’t think you have no levy. When he returned, things suddenly changed, and there was no way to prevent the people who were galloping to achieve justice and justice in the world. I thought that I was too foolish to predict, so I understood what was going on in my heart and became more and more confused every day. You, on the other hand, took a moment to find out what it contained, and you became famous. "It can be seen that Li Jianchang and Jiang Wei had different experiences in China, which led to their different reactions to the changes in North Korea's foreign policy after returning to China. Li Jianchang fully felt the weakness of China and was worried about the future of North Korea. He wrote in "Mingmeitang Poetry" "Collected Works" says: "In the early days, the imperial court criticized the Japanese and foreign masters for fighting and defending, but they really couldn't get the point. Jianchang was worried. Chang said: "China is the hub of foreign countries. If you enter China and look at it well, you can know the feelings of foreign countries." ’ After entering China, he sighed and said: ‘I still don’t know what China is like. If China is like this, our country will follow suit.'" On the fourth day of April in the third year of Guangxu (1877), when North Korea thanked the emperor and returned the Winter Solstice envoy, Shen Chengze, the envoy, also had a very low opinion of China. He described to Emperor Gaozong: "Most of the time, the young country is doubtful, the people are distracted, and the court has not responded. It is advocated that people's business will only end in profit, and it has been reported to the official in writing. And when I saw it, there were many things that made me sigh. "On the seventh day of November in the fifth year of Guangxu (1879), when he thanked the three envoys and resigned during the winter solstice, Emperor Gaozong also said: "When I see the emperor's calendar and the counselor's handbook, the king of Ryukyu is in the hands of the Japanese, and I have invited him. They were saved by the actions of Li Hongzhang and the Ministry of Rites, but they could not be saved in the end. This shows how weak a big country is. Therefore, Gaozong asked the three envoys to investigate the actual situation in detail and report back. It can be seen that Gaozong also had high doubts about China's ability to protect North Korea at this time.

IV. Conclusion

Since the late 18th century, North Korean envoys and Chinese scholar-bureaucrats The exchanges gradually expanded, from singing poetry and prose to academic discussions, and then talking about current affairs, and finally in modern times. From Park Guisu, Zheng Jianchao, Li Yuyuan and others, we can see that there is a change from "people have no diplomacy" to "people do diplomacy" Change. However, people from the two countries have always had concerns in the process of exchanges. Therefore, in the 1860s and 1870s, because China had concluded trade treaties with other countries and allowed foreign ministers to be stationed in Beijing, while North Korea still adhered to the policy of seclusion, domestic public opinion They also blindly advocated rejecting evil and fighting for defense, which made Chinese scholar-bureaucrats reluctant to talk more about foreign affairs with the North Korean envoys. Although some of the North Korean envoys were willing to learn about foreign affairs, they were limited by domestic public opinion and could not play a big role. People from the two countries Their exchanges could never break through the constraints of the traditional vassal system. At this time, Wan Qingli, who had long served as the Minister of Rites, was relatively conservative and agreed with Dayuanjun's policy of seclusion. Even when the Prime Minister's Yamen asked him to secretly deliver the letter from the American envoy to North Korea, Starting from the maintenance of the traditional vassal system, it was proposed that this would not be the case in the future. In the end, North Korea signed the "Ganghwa Island Treaty" with Japan without sufficient knowledge reserves. China, as the only channel for North Korea to understand the outside world, did not take the initiative to provide North Korea with substantive North Korea’s ignorance of the outside world and China’s indifference to the negotiations between North Korea and Japan not only led to North Korea’s insufficient understanding of some provisions of the Ganghwa Island Treaty, but also put the Qing-Korean suzerainty-vassal relationship in a passive position.

After that, there was also no With sufficient communication and institutional preparation, after the failure to persuade North Korea to conclude treaties and trade with Western countries through letters between Li Hongzhang and Li Yuyuan, the "North Korea Strategy" was used to promote the matter. However, it also intensified the two major problems of civilizing and enlightening North Korea and expelling evil and defending justice. The division of power. Japan became the main channel for North Korea to understand the outside world, sending gentlemen tour groups to Japan for inspection. The civilized and enlightened faction therefore forged an inseparable relationship with Japan, and only sent foreign students to Tianjin to study machinery manufacturing. The Qing government's response The Korean policy obviously failed to keep up with the changes in the situation inside and outside the Korean Peninsula, and instead put itself increasingly in a dilemma. The Qing government did not have the determination to actively break the vassal system, so it could only cope with it, and finally sat back and watched the vassal system of Qing and Han be destroyed. People in Japan, Russia, the United States and other countries were dismembered and perished.

[Note] The article was originally published in "Journal of Fudan University (Social Science Edition)", Issue 5, 2018. To facilitate reading on mobile phones, notes and references are omitted.