[Article / Observer Network columnist Paul]
As an adjective, "new" has a positive meaning, but in historical research, this word often does not have a clear connotation. In recent years, a number of historical studies with the title "new" have not been universally recognized and praised for their new characteristics. The typical one is "New Qing History".
As far as the meaning of words is concerned, the "new" of New Qing History first comes from research perspectives and research materials, and other historical studies under the name of "new" are also similar. It is worth noting that a number of studies under the name of "new" all attach importance to the research perspectives elicited by Inner Asia, and they are gradually expanding. The author will also set out from this point, focusing on some new trends in the study of chronological history from the perspective of Inner Asia, and briefly talk about a family statement.
"Yongzheng Emperor Traveling Music Picture · Taoist Statue", the picture is from the Palace Museum.
Why should we highlight "Inner Asia"?
Before discussing research trends, the first concept that needs to be clear is: What is Inner Asia? As the name suggests, Inner Asia is short for "Inner Asia", which is just a geographical vocabulary without any unpredictable meaning. The so-called inland mainly refers to the Mongolian plateau and the core Asian hinterland.
Compared with the geographical concept of dividing space by mountains and rivers, the spatial scope of "Inner Asia" emphasizes the space of nomads' activities within the Eurasian continent during the historical period, so it can be divided into a broad sense and a narrow sense. Specifically, "Inner Asia" related to Chinese history is mainly Mongolia, Xinjiang, Tibet and today's Northeast China.
Since the Qin and Han empires, although the Inner Asia region has been included in the empire's territory many times, most of the residents here are not Han, and the jurisdiction of the Central Plains Dynasty is mostly restrained, and the relationship between the central and local governments is relatively Loose.
In a fairly long historical period, the national regimes that existed in Inner Asia constituted a powerful challenge to the Central Plains dynasty, affecting and changing the historical trend of China. Therefore, no matter which section of Chinese history is concerned, Inner Asia is a region that cannot be ignored.
However, affected by the amount of historical data and language,It is not easy to study the history of Inner Asia. For example, the Xiongnu who was rampant for a while, almost no other systematic historical accounts can be found outside of Chinese historical materials. There are only a few Turkic inscriptions in Turkic inscriptions, which used to fight against the rituals of the Sui and Tang empires. Regarding Chinese history before the Sui and Tang Dynasties, many researches on the inner Asian perspective can only rely on archaeological materials.
However, the conditions of historical materials after the Song Dynasty are quite different. Not only are the Chinese materials more abundant, but also a large number of other written materials are preserved. As a result, new research approaches to examine history such as "History of the Great Yuan Dynasty" or "History of the New Yuan Dynasty" have emerged from the perspective of Inner Asia, and the "New Qing History" that advertises the importance of historical materials in Manchu is naturally among them.
Whether the views of "Da Yuan History" and "New Qing History" are valid is beyond the scope of this article. But what is certain is that to jump out of the historical perspective of the Central Plains, to examine the history of the two dynasties from outside the Chinese historical data does have important academic significance, and it is especially helpful for a more comprehensive understanding of the historical process during this period. .
Ming Dynasty: A dynasty established by the Han, also has "inner Asianness"?
As the empires established by ethnic minorities, the Yuan and Qing dynasties originally came from Inner Asia in a broad sense, and they had an inseparable connection with Inner Asia during the historical period of their rule. Therefore, the "new" was extended from the perspective of Inner Asia. The historical interpretation of, whether established or not, is at least feasible. As the last dynasty established by the Han, can the Ming Dynasty also have contact with Inner Asia? This is a very interesting question.
The inner Asia mentioned above is a concept in geographical space. The "Inner Asian tradition" derived from it is a problem in cultural research, specifically referring to the culture and institutional system that emerged in the Inner Asian region where non-Han ethnic groups live . Due to various reasons, Inner Asian traditions have been integrated into Chinese history during a long historical period, bringing new changes to Chinese cultural traditions, political systems and other aspects. These Inner Asian factors are called " Inner Asianness". In a word, the inner Asianness is the influence of the northern peoples on Chinese history, and the manifestation of the degree of influence.
Among the Inner Asian forces in different historical periods, the power centered on the Mongolian Plateau is the most powerful. It constitutes a relatively independent historical unit from the Central Plains and is also the most important source of "Inner Asian tradition". In the long historical period,The forces in the north and south of the Great Wall interact frequently, and many historical traditions of Inner Asia have been deeply embedded in Chinese history, forming the "inner Asianness" in Chinese history. Among them, the most "inner Asian" is naturally the dynasty established by ethnic minorities.
"The Twilight of the Empire" Book Shadow
In fact, the research group of the New Qing History in the United States is the most respected research group of Chinese history in today's academic circles. They emphasized the difference between the Ming and Qing dynasties, emphasized the "inner Asianness" of the Qing Dynasty which was different from the Ming Dynasty, and even believed that the "inner Asianness" of the Qing empire surpassed the "Chineseness". In contrast, the Ming Dynasty became a purely Han regime, so that the "Ming and Qing History" could be broken into "Ming History" and "New Qing History".
However, is this really the case? From the perspective of "inner Asianness", we might as well borrow the research path of "New Qing History" to "routine" Ming Dynasty history.
The respected status of Qing emperors in Tibetan Buddhism has been valued by the study of New Qing History. In fact, the emperor of the Ming Dynasty also had an important influence on Tibetan Buddhism. Studies by Chinese and foreign scholars have successively revealed that as early as the Yongle reign, when the fifth living Buddha of the Karmapa went to Nanjing to pay homage to Ming Chengzu, he emphasized his respect for the Ming emperor, and respected Ming Dazu and Queen Ma as the incarnations of Manjushri and Tara.
During the Hongzhi reign, Ming Xiaozong bestowed Wusi Zang's Interpretation King, who honored the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty as the Emperor of Manjusri of China. Even the last emperor Ming Sizong was called the incarnation of Manjushri by Tibetan Buddhism. Scholars also discovered that until the 5th year of Shunzhi, Mongolians who believed in Tibetan Buddhism still regarded Daming Khan as the incarnation of Manjushri. It was not until nine years after Shunzhi that the emperor of the Qing Dynasty replaced the Ming Dynasty and became the holy master of Manjusri.
In the Mongolian plateau, members of the Genghis Khan family have a lofty lineage status. In the history books compiled by the Timur Khanate in the 15th century, Ming Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang became a Mongolian and was a general of the guards. In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, this story spread further in Mongolia and developed into "Zhu Yuanzhang is the son of Emperor Yuanshun".
Since then, many Mongolian documents have recorded similar statements, and many people still believe it today. In this way, the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty was actually a descendant of Genghis Khan, and his ruling authority was naturally not questioned. Among the Mongolian folk songs collected and sorted by scholars, there is an old prayer hymn,The Ming Khan was included in his own list, and some scholars further believed that the Mongolian and Tibetan people regarded the Ming emperor as the revolving saint king, which was consistent with the status enjoyed by the Qing emperor afterwards.
In further inland Asia, the influence of the Ming emperor can also be found. For example, in the Arabs' book "A Journey to China", the emperor of the Ming Dynasty was the patron of Islam. They even explained that the emperor respected Muhammad and prayed to the prophet in private, making him a hidden Muslim.
The Qing emperor's enthusiasm for Inner Asian ethnicity and religion was highly valued by related scholars. In fact, it doesn't take much effort to find a similar performance to the emperor of the Ming Dynasty. For example, the forty-meter-long "The Karmapa Living Buddha's Blessing Picture", combined with the use of five languages, Chinese, Tibetan, Persian, Mongolian, and Uyghur, is a testament to the "inner Asianness" of the Ming Dynasty. Compared with the Yongning Temple stele hidden in Russia today, the Chinese, Mongolian, and Jurchen characters seem to be both "inner Asian."
Part of "Pudu Ming Taizu Long Scroll", pictured from Tibet Museum.
Due to space limitations, it is difficult for us to count the "Inner Asian" characteristics of the Ming Dynasty. In fact, this is not necessary. But what is certain is that examining the history of the dynasty from the perspective of Inner Asia is by no means a patent of the Yuan and Qing dynasties. The Inner Asian characteristics of the Ming Empire is also an academic issue with research space. In other words, it seems that the “new” history born from the perspective of Inner Asia can be applied to the Ming Dynasty.
The signs and possibilities of "New Ming History"
Since "Inner Asia" can be linked to Ming Dynasty history, does it mean that the "New Qing History" that originated in the United States can derive forward and create a "New Ming History" "What? To discuss this issue, we might as well review the views of American academic circles on the historical positioning of the Ming Dynasty.
Friends who pay attention to overseas Sinology works may have noticed the special term "Late Chinese Empire". This term of time appeared in the 1970s, when mainstream American sinologists merged the Ming and Qing dynasties into one time space and called it the "late empire." As a result, a large number of works with "late empire" as the key word were born. Top universities such as Harvard also offer courses on "Late Chinese Empire".
around the 21st century,With the promotion of the theory of change, the Ming Dynasty was also placed under the perspective of "change". Such as the Yuan and Ming Dynasties and the Song Yuan and Ming Dynasties, once became a hot topic of research. Domestic scholars have also carried out related research, but the academic circles seem to have not reached a consensus, and related issues are rarely seen in the public eye. In the mainstream Ming historians in the United States, the concept of "late empire" is still widely used, probably because of the continuity between Ming and Qing, and some scholars question whether the Ming Dynasty can be called an independent "imperial period."
In the past few years, there was a short period of "Lattimore fever", mainly from the perspective of Inner Asia, re-examining the minority regimes in Chinese history, and supplementing the historical cognition centered on Han culture. After the Qing Dynasty, the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty, and the Northern Wei Dynasty and other minority dynasties, the dynasties established by the Han people such as Tang, Song and Ming have also become the object of research under the "Inner Asian perspective."
The popularity of "New Qing History" has an important relationship with the unique "Inner Asian vision". With the increase in research on Ming Dynasty and "Inner Asia", we can't help but make associations. If we follow the law, can we also start from Inner Asia and open up a world of "new Ming history"?
As mentioned above, the "Inner Asia" feature of the Ming Dynasty is an indispensable aspect of the comprehensive study of Ming Dynasty history. It is subject to historical materials, language ability and other factors. There have been obvious weaknesses for a long time, and it is extremely necessary to carry out the study. But does the interpretation of inner Asian characteristics mean “inner Asianness” and can it lead to “new Ming history”? It is another complicated topic.
The first thing to clarify is that Inner Asia is only a research perspective. The study of Chinese history from Inner Asia has no direct relationship with the territory, population, and national strength. Just like standing at your neighbor’s house and looking at your house, it does not mean that your neighbor’s house has become your house. But from another perspective, you can often see the problems that are ignored because of "only oneself in this mountain". This is the key significance of switching research perspectives.
Secondly, given that the "New Qing History" has caused great controversy, it is necessary to assume that if the "New Ming History" from the perspective of Inner Asia can be established, will it become the "helper" of the New Qing History? The author believes that "New Ming History" may not only help "New Qing History", it will also challenge "New Qing History".
In the historical narrative of "New Qing History", in order to emphasize its tradition from Inner Asia, the Ming Dynasty was often ignored.Or bypass the Ming Dynasty with the historical evolution of "Meng Yuan-Northern Yuan-Qing Dynasty". If the inner Asian characteristics of the Ming Dynasty are fully discussed, it will undoubtedly be a powerful challenge to the narrative of "New Qing History", and even a subversion. From this point of view, it is exciting to carry out relevant research.
However, what needs to be analyzed calmly is how strong was the Inner Asian characteristics of the Ming Dynasty? Can it constitute a "characteristic" that affects the empire? On the one hand, it is well known that for most of the Ming Dynasty, the territory under its direct control did not go out of Jiayuguan in the northwest and Liaodong in the northeast. Which is more important between the influence of the Ming Dynasty on Inner Asia and the influence of Inner Asia on the Ming Dynasty? This should not be a difficult question to answer.
On the other hand, although the Ming Dynasty had a lot of contacts with Inner Asia, some records can be found in historical materials, but from a macro perspective, how significant is it? If the Inner Asian regime respects the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty and recognizes the suzerainty of the Ming Empire, it means that the Ming Dynasty has a profound "Inner Asian tradition."
So, Ryukyu, Siam, Champa, and a large number of Southeast Asian countries also have a series of tributes to the Ming Dynasty and the Ming Emperor. Does it also mean that the Ming Dynasty has a deep "Southern Sea tradition"? In this regard, in order to prove the importance of the "inner Asianness" of the DPRK, many important questions need to be properly answered.
It is worth noting that, wrapped in the fresh vocabulary of "Inner Asia", there are not only refreshing research articles, but also some indiscriminate rhetoric for the pursuit of fashion. Regarding handed down historical materials, whether in Chinese or other languages, you must be very careful in interpreting and using them.
As the supreme ruler, the emperor of the Ming Dynasty had different performances in many aspects. He would not only give generously to the leaders of Tibetan Buddhism, but also reward Jesuit missionaries who were not far away. He also wanted to find the Taoist Zhang Zhenren. He respected Confucius, and he would go to the Taimiao Temple to pay tribute to his ancestors and ancestors whenever major events occurred. Starting from a certain point or even a certain detail, it is easy to draw a one-sided conclusion by in-depth explanation and fuss.
"Ruiying Kylin Picture" painted by Shen Du of Ming Dynasty shows the scene of Bangge Tsang Dynasty meeting Emperor Yongle.
Discovering new historical materials and opening up new perspectives has always been an important path to promote historical research. The new viewpoints and new ideas derived from this are important achievements in the advancement of historical research. But in academic research,"New" does not mean correctness, nor does it necessarily mean advanced. The particularity of the text has no direct relationship with the credibility of historical data.
In the development process of industrial products, not every product is reliable and effective. The results of historical research have a similar situation. Many opinions may be popular for a while, but after repeated research and discussion, they are finally considered to be What is wrong becomes a part of "trial and error". Including the history of the Ming Dynasty, the history of dynasties needs to be continuously advanced. The Inner Asian perspective is indeed an entry point worth exploring. To avoid the troubles of "predicting lessons", Chinese scholars may wish to work harder and take the initiative to seize the commanding heights of academics, so that both "new" and "old" , The writing of Chinese history can present the appearance that academic research institutes should have.
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