There is a man who can be called a master among rogues, the mentor among masters, he is the absolute idol of master Kant - Jean-Jacques Rousseau .
There is a very annoying habit in the philosophical and literary circles, that is: taboo for the sages. For example, if Rousseau picks up girls and shoots the girl in her mother-in-law, if it comes to their writing, it will definitely turn into a stingy way: Ah, it’s a real celebrity who is so romantic!
However, for Rousseau, their "tag for the sage" plan was directly ruined, because compared with other philosophers who need entertainment journalists to dig deep into privacy gossip, Rousseau is too easy to do. He directly declared to the world his quirk that made many people stunned and red-faced in the narcissistic autobiographical literature "Confessions".
As soon as the "Confessions" was released, everyone was shocked. Therefore, in the eyes of some people, Comrade Rousseau is a very brave academic superstar, and in the eyes of others, he is just a vulgar old hooligan. If Rousseau posted a post online one day, the following replies will definitely appear:
Kant (Sunny Old Otaku): Sofa, excited, you have made me successful. I forgot to go out for a walk at 4 pm to read your "Emile". The fools in Konisburg still think that the church bell is broken.
Hegel (Super professor): I have put your front in the study with clear and uncensored photos, kowtow three times in the morning and evening, and a stick of incense stick of morning and evening.
Schopenhauer (My dog's "world spirit" has been getting old recently): Even my idol Kant said it was OK, the poster is definitely not bad. @Hegel, black fool, don’t mess with philosophy garbage, come and worship the master!
Byron (I want to be a poet): The poster is mighty, I want to write a poem for the poster!
Shelley (Keats dies, my heart dies, please burn paper if you have something to do): Like, I want to write, I want to do it too.
Robespierre (Long live the Jacobins, long live the Jacobins): Who has the poster’s WeChat? I want to watch the real person of the poster!
Russell (My " History of Western Philosophy " has been published, please support the genuine version, there are discounts): The poster is a rogue, and the poster's thoughts have led to Hitler's totalitarianism!
Isaiah Berlin (who is writing a biography for Marx): It’s strange, the poster is aggressive, vulgar, and lacks education. Why are so many people pointing out? After reading the above
, what should you think? In fact, Rousseau, who wrote "Confessions" in history, was not the first. For example, Augustine also wrote "Confessions", but people expressed their respect for God and profound criticism of their own behavior between the lines.
However, when it comes to Rousseau, "Confessions" is written openly as a confession of an exposure patient. Although Rousseau speaks out for many of his bad behaviors, he has no sense of shame. On the contrary, Rousseau thinks he is naive and the outside world is too cruel. He is just an innocent and poor person played with by fate from beginning to end.
Rousseau wrote a book that was not satisfied, and continued to write "Dialogues: Rousseau's Judgement of Jean Jacques" and "The Reverie of a Lonely Walker". Through Rousseau's description in this series of confessions, we basically grasp Rousseau's life. Looking at his life, it was a life of rich experience and a colorful life.
If Rousseau has a resume, he will fill in the "Profession" column: apprentice, tutor, thief, novice, male servant, minstrel, romantic writer, philosopher.
: Rousseau's kid has lost his mother since he was a child. His unreliable father has gone away because of his lawsuit. Rousseau basically grew up in embarrassment and shabby under the roof. He lacked discipline and almost became a "problem boy" because of lying and stealing. Fortunately, his elegant books saved him, allowing him to stop his horse and not further develop into a juvenile offender and was arrested and imprisoned.
When Rousseau was 16 years old, he defected to the noble lady Mrs. Warren. Mrs. Warren was twenty-eight years old that year, and was charming. Rousseau, a street boy, had never seen this situation before. He was instantly killed by Mrs. Warren's glorious motherly image. From then on, he fell under the pomegranate skirt of Warren's mother and began a lifelong incompetent love that could not be cut off.
When Enlightenment master Voltaire is well-known in Europe, Rousseau is still the unknown little white-faced, kept in the ancient house by the beautiful and charming mother of Warren. Rousseau's success was a coincidence. One day, he went to visit his good friend Diderot who was imprisoned in prison. On weekdays, most of the telephone poles were posted with "The secret recipe passed down from ancestors, specializing in treating XX disease, and it worked in a pinch." But that day, he unexpectedly posted with a prize-winning essay advertisement for Dijon Academy's title of "Whether the revival of art and science helps to transform customs ".
After Rousseau saw the advertisement, the universe exploded and he immediately submitted a manuscript called "On Science and Art". Regarding this prize-winning essay, when other competitors answered "yes" in the article and listed one, two or three points to try to prove it, Rousseau answered "no" in a deviant way!
Rousseau believes that art and science cannot at all behave in a custom. On the contrary, it is the emergence of science and art that human freedom has been strangled. Rousseau's opposite approach really attracted a lot of attention, and his paper immediately took the lead. Overnight, Rousseau became famous.
Rousseau's thoughts in the article "On Science and Art" can be simply summarized into nine words: Anti-civilization pure natural retro style .
Rousseau believes that science and technology originate from the evil of human beings. People are obsessed with the stars in the sky, so they have astrology; people want to realize their ambitions, so they have eloquence; people are greedy and stingy, so they have geometry; people are unrealistic curiosity, so they have physics. Science and technology are not the welfare of mankind, but the curse of mankind.
Rousseau emphasizes pure nature and advocates natural philosophy. Rousseau's nature includes the fresh nature, but it emphasizes more on the natural state of man, that is, the state of man before entering society and civilization. In a natural state, human nature is good and free and equal. Rousseau's natural philosophy can't help but ask ourselves, who are in the era of technology flooding, nuclear explosion and plastic surgery,: Does industrial civilization inevitably bring happiness?
Rousseau advocates the retro style, humming "Want to Go Back to the Past" all his life, his heart is full of infinite imaginations about pastoral life. In his eyes, the perfect society should be colorful, with traffic, chickens and dogs heard each other, yellow hair drooping, happy, and lively a Western "paradise".
Rousseau believes that noble virtue has long disappeared without a trace in today's depraved and dirty society, and it can only be found in the early days of human society. He strongly praised the ancient Spartan society advocated by Plato.
In Rousseau's view, it is best to return to the basics of the relationship between men and women: little men and women are happy, they have an appointment in the woods, and they have children to raise them. This is simple and easy to deal with. Rousseau's view is similar to the plot described in our "Book of Songs": "There is a dead body in the wild, and the white wethorn covers it. If there is a girl in love with spring, auspicious mentors lure it. There is a simple forest, relaxed and relaxed, and I can't help but bark without any help!"
Although Rousseau is an outstanding representative of the Enlightenment, he is actually an alien of the Enlightenment: most of the Enlightenment came from famous families, with a handsome family and a handsome scarf. The graduate schools are also "985" and "211", and are famous professional tutors, who follow the "elite" route; while Rousseau is a grassroots person, and has never attended school, and he doesn't even know which direction the school gate is open.
In addition, Rousseau was extremely cool in dressing and hat. He often wrapped an Armenian robe. In the eyes of those nobles who were flirting with furious horses and side hats, this behavior was like wearing autumn pants outside to visit the Xidan of Wangfujing. They look down on Rousseau, and Rousseau looks down on them even more. They emphasize rationalism , and Rousseau emphasizes the supremacy of emotions; they believe that private property is sacred and inviolable, but Rousseau believes that private ownership is the origin of inequality and should be eradicated.
1753, Dijon Academy held a prize-winning essay contest for the second time. This time the title was "The Origin of Human Inequality". Rousseau, who tasted the sweetness, could not miss such an opportunity. He was eager to try and put in a paper titled "On the Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality". Unfortunately, he failed this time and failed to win the award.However, it is this unselected paper that has had a very profound impact on the course of human history.
Rousseau believes that human inequality has two manifestations: one is natural inequality, such as height, beauty and ugliness, health or not; the other is political and economic inequality, which is acquired, and private ownership is the origin of these acquired inequality.
Rousseau divided the development state of human society into "natural state" and "social state". Before the emergence of the state and society, human beings were in the "natural state", and everyone was free and equal, without oppression, power and slavery. However, with the development of private ownership, mankind has entered a "social state", and there has been a war of the gap between the rich and the poor, tyranny, enslavement and oppression. The emergence of private ownership led to the emergence of the state, so how should the state operate? This involves Rousseau's famous political science work " Social Contract Theory ".
Rousseau believes that a person is too lonely, and people need to form a group to resist danger and survive together. Everyone in the group needs to give up their own certain powers and form a government, and how does the government reflect people's will? This requires two concepts: "public will" and "public will". "There is always a big difference between public will and public will; public will only focus on public interests, while public will focus on private interests, and public will only be the sum of individual wills."
public will may not always be correct, but it should definitely be the most in line with the will of the masses, and public will represent the will of the group and the will of most people. The purpose of the social contract is to place the personal and all power of each person under the guidance of public will, and each member must accept that he is an integral part of the whole. This also means that if you don’t want to obey public will one day, then the whole society will force you to obey.
For example, the law is the product of public will, and the law represents the public will of the whole society. Obeying the law means obeying oneself. Of course, if you have nothing to do and want to challenge the law, then you will immediately experience what coercion and violence are. The social contract is very different from that in Hobbes . Although both agree with people's transfer of natural power, Hobbes believes that people should hand over the power of transfer to the monarch, while Rousseau believes that it should hand over to a social community composed of everyone.
Immediately afterwards, Rousseau further proposed the idea of "sovereignty over the people" based on the social contract, which can be said to be the essence of the "Social Contract Theory". This idea is different from Hobbes's "divine authority of monarchy", and from the "separation of powers" between Locke and Montesquieu, Rousseau's "sovereignty is in the people" believes that the sovereignty of a country belongs entirely to all citizens of this country.
Rousseau believes that sovereignty is the embodiment of public will, that people's sovereignty cannot be transferred, indivisible, supreme, and cannot be violated or represented. To put it bluntly, if the people feel that the government fails to represent our public will one day, then we will rise up and overthrow you.
, who studies Rousseau very well, once wrote: "Since Rousseau's era, people who consider themselves reformers have always been divided into two factions, namely those who follow him and those who follow Locke. Sometimes the two factions cooperate, and many people cannot see any incompatible things. But gradually their incompatibility is becoming increasingly obvious. At present, Hitler is a result of Rousseau, and Roosevelt and Churchill are the result of Locke."
Rousseau's radical democratic theory "sovereignty in the people" idea was the guiding ideology of the French Revolution. France's Declaration of Human Rights and the later American Declaration of Independence both absorbed Rousseau's ideas. Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobins in the French Revolution, was a huge fan of Rousseau. He also visited Rousseau.
If rationalism is already terminally ill when it comes to Schopenhauer and Nietzsche , then rationalism has begun to have problems in the skin from Rousseau. Rousseau opposes rationalism and attaches importance to human emotions. Kant, who is knowledgeable, attaches great importance to Rousseau's point. Kant feels that although his philosophy is rigorous and meticulous, he only misses the lively and real human nature in Rousseau's writing.
Kant highly praised Rousseau, and he hung Rousseau's avatar on the wall of his bedroom. Rousseau's "Emile" was published. In order to get a glimpse of his eyes, Kant even disrupted his persistent habit of walking at four o'clock in the afternoon. This book "Emile", which made the otaku Kant love, is actually an educational classic. Rousseau focuses on how we should educate children when civilization begins to bind human nature.
In Rousseau's view, a baby is in a state of unfree slavery from the date of birth. Adults use competition, vanity, suspicion, greed, jealousy and other desires that have not yet formed by children to stimulate and educate them. Every time the children are instilled, the root of evil is planted in their hearts. In the book, Rousseau tells the story of an isolated child in the form of a novel. Emil is a natural person isolated by urban culture, and his teacher is nature.
Rousseau used this to argue a very important point: education should start with dolls, and natural education should be implemented for dolls, so that they can use everything given to them by nature to help and replenish their bodies, but they cannot indulge their desires and encourage them to express and develop their nature. The first emotion of children is self-love, and the second emotion is love for the people around them. Their education should be away from corrupt and degenerate societies and civilizations, and should not be tempted by any prejudice and desire.
"Emile" allows today's educators to see it as an educational work full of sincerity and conscience. However, this moderate pedagogical work that advocated natural education was defined as heresy in the context of the church's monopoly education at that time, and "Emil" was destroyed in public. Poor Rousseau, his fragile heart suffered serious damage, and coupled with the coercion and persecution of the authorities, Rousseau's paranoia of persecution intensified.
At this time, David Hume from the UK was in a timely manner. So Rousseau rushed to England to take refuge. In "Beauvoir and Sartre ", a philosopher expert talked about the similarity between the French nation and the Chinese nation. For example, we all love secular life and pay attention to the desire to speak. In addition, the philosophies of our two nations are quite similar. Compared with other philosophers in other countries who emphasize high abstract thinking and like to create philosophical systems, the philosophies of our two countries pay more attention to sensory thinking, like to pay attention to reality, sensibility, and more experience levels.
Therefore, just like Chinese philosophy has been criticized, Rousseau is also suspected of whether he is a philosopher. Rousseau is indeed different from other philosophers. He is not so concerned about philosophy's ontology , epistemology, and his works do not use normative philosophical language, but Rousseau is indeed a philosopher, and his status is also a tutor among philosophers. Anyone who tries to write the history of philosophy will not miss Rousseau's chapter.
Rousseau's life was a split life, a hypocritical life.
Although he called for education in "Emil", he cruelly threw all five of his own children into the nanny hall. His reason was shameless: raising these children requires money, so I had to work hard to make money. It is too tiring to make money. I can easily die of overwork. If I die, no one will raise the child, so it is better to send it to the nanny hall directly. This is why he doesn't raise his children. Rousseau would even swing his cane and chase and hit the child on the roadside who bumped into his mischievously.
Although Rousseau used elegant brushstrokes to describe love in "New Ailoqisi" and set a precedent for romanticism, Rousseau abused his illiterate wife all his life, and always kept his wife full of disdain and contempt.
Although Rousseau emphasizes that emotions are greater than rationality, in addition to the failure of love, he also has no gains in friendship. He quarreled with Voltaire and parted ways with Diderot. He was even full of doubts about Hume, who helped him take refuge in Britain, and finally broke off his ties with others. Rousseau was full of talent and ambition, narcissistic and selfish, paranoid and suspicious.
He lived a life of timidity and cowardice. He seemed to try to exhaust his miserable life to verify the point mentioned at the beginning of "Theory of Social Contract": People are born free, but they are in shackles. .
Rousseau and Voltaire: The absolute mortal enemy!
French emperor Louis XVI was imprisoned in the palace during the Great Revolution. One day, he read the works of Voltaire and Rousseau, and actually covered his face and sighed: These two people destroyed France!
Voltaire and Rousseau, the two Enlightenment stars, once fought side by side and appreciated each other, but in the end they were unable to escape the ruling of the literati. They attacked and verbally spoke, spoke ill of each other, and severed grace and righteousness, and jointly staged a farce in the history of philosophy.
It was reported that a foreign couple who studied philosophy, because one was a Hegelist and the other was an anti-Hegelist, the couple eventually parted ways and broke up and divorced.
When ordinary people heard this news, they felt: This matter is too unreasonable and pretentious. In fact, this matter is not done at all. A man and a woman are combined together. At the beginning, lust attacks the differences, and everything is insignificant, but over time, reason will eventually dominate.
We often say that "Tao is different, and we do not plan for each other." This "Tao" can be understood in a narrow sense as personality, concept, and way of dealing with the world; broadly speaking, this "Tao" is a world outlook, values, and philosophical position. The battle between Rousseau and Voltaire seems to be suspicious and dark, sensitive and inferior in his personality; Voltaire is broad-minded and fat, and is not easily affected by emotional fluctuations. In essence, differences in background, philosophical stance, and worldview ultimately lead to the two becoming enemies.
Voltaire is 18 years older than Rousseau, and he is the most prestigious figure in the Enlightenment. Voltaire was born rich and wealthy, and was not aware of the taste of poverty; Rousseau was born poor and poor, and lived in a life of displaced and had no place to live.
When Voltaire is at ease in the salons and enjoys it, Rousseau is living under the humble and embarrassed; Voltaire is a handsome young man in the upper class, while Rousseau is a gangster who steals and cheats for his livelihood; Voltaire, a rich child, pursues high-level success, and Rousseau, who has experienced the warmth and coldness of the world, loves nature and desires to be respected and loved.
Different classes and different experiences, although they are both stars of the Enlightenment, their thoughts are "harmonious but different": Voltaire emphasizes rationality, attaches importance to science, technology and culture, and is enthusiastically trying to build emerging cities; Rousseau is disgusted with rationality, anti-technology and civilization, and yearns for the peach blossom land of pure natural and retro style. Voltaire placed his hopes on social improvement, and the enlightened monarchy was more suitable for France; Rousseau advocated breaking the old system and establishing a republic. Voltaire believed that private property cannot be violated and social equality is difficult to achieve; Rousseau called for the elimination of private ownership and the realization of equality for everyone. Rousseau was a fanatical revolutionary, and Voltaire was a tolerant conservative.
In short, Rousseau's ideals reflect the demands of the lower petty bourgeoisie in society fighting for survival, while Voltaire represents the ideas of the upper bourgeoisie in society.
Due to different philosophical positions, Voltaire attacked Rousseau as a "gambler clown". The book "On the Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality" "makes people crawl around with their limbs"; Rousseau counterattacked Voltaire for betrayal and could not die well. For a moment, the two of them criticized each other, verbally and quarreled. Voltaire and Rousseau were both leaders and spokespersons of the Enlightenment, and were mixed in the "Encyclopedia School".
What is "enlightenment"? Kant wrote in "What is the Enlightenment": "The Enlightenment is that humans are free from the immaturity that they have been added to themselves. The immaturity is that they are powerless to use their own reason without being guided by others. When the reason is not that they lack the courage and determination to apply without being guided by others, then this immaturity is what they have been added to themselves. Have the courage to use your own reason! This is the slogan of the Enlightenment."
In other words, the Enlightenment promotes reason, uses knowledge as a weapon, and is anti-feudal and anti-supercreational fanaticism. It uses the concept of equality to stimulate people's minds, advocates getting rid of feudal lifestyles, and establish a good social system. If the previous Renaissance movement discovered people, the Enlightenment developed people and gradually matured.Human beings no longer obey autocracy and ignorance like children. We begin to remain rational, liquidate religion, judge superstition, and open our minds.
Hegel once said: "This is a brilliant dawn, and all thoughtful existences are filled with the joy of this new era."
As the leader of the Enlightenment Party, Voltaire is an all-round star. He has achieved outstanding achievements in philosophy, poetry, novels, plays, etc., and is known as the "uncrowned emperor of the Republic of Science and Art." Voltaire was open-minded and generous. He often used laughter, scolding, sarcasm and ridicule as weapons to smash the venue everywhere. He just smashed the Catholic Church's venue yesterday, and today he smashed the French government's venue again. He teased the enemy and stimulated the enemy at all costs, and the enemy eventually became angry.
Voltaire also paid a heavy price for this: he was invited to the Bastille, a famous prison with a long history and world-famous prison in France; he was also deported and exiled to Britain for decades.
Western philosophers either do not mention China, or mention it is also condescending and arrogant and prejudiced. However, Voltaire is rarely a fan of Chinese culture.
2010 Chen Kaige Director brought the Yuan drama "Orphan of Zhao" to the screen. Little did they know that as early as more than 200 years ago, Voltaire adapted "The Orphan of Zhao" into the five-act drama "The Orphan of China", which was staged in Danfeng Bailu and was a great success.
Voltaire loves Chinese civilization. He highly praised China and Chinese civilization in his works such as "On Customs", "Historical Era ", "Historical Philosophy ". In his eyes, the Chinese people are smart and hardworking, and Chinese history is valuable and credible. Chinese culture represented by Confucius emphasizes "do not do to others what you do not want others to do to you" and encourages people to do good. Confucius and Confucianism focus on ethics and morality and education, which is completely different from the Christian culture that talks about the immortality of the soul. There are no superstitions or legends in Confucian culture. Voltaire highly praised and highly praised Confucius, saying that he did not charm the emperor, was not good at being powerful and charming, and was a role model. He was a true saint. Voltaire also hung a portrait of Confucius on his wall.
Voltaire's "worship of Chinese civilization" makes us Chinese feel a little embarrassed. Although Voltaire's theory of China is unobjective, Voltaire can use the alien civilization of Chinese civilization to examine Christian civilization and criticize Christian ignorance and superstition. In fact, Voltaire not only used Chinese civilization to examine European civilization, but also used alien civilization to examine human civilization. Voltaire had a wild imagination and excellent writing style. His science fiction philosophical novel "Little Man" is also a masterpiece today.
"Little Adult" tells a story: There is a young man on Sirius who is 120,000 feet tall (36,576 meters), 450 years old, and is about to end his childhood. He is the "Little Adult". The little adult loved science and anatomy, and one of his progressive papers was denounced as "hereticism" by code experts on their planet. The little adult ran away in anger and made a friend on Saturn. This friend of Saturn is less than 2,000 meters tall and has 72 senses. When Saturnians complained to the little adults about their lack of senses, they said that Sirius people still feel incomplete with thousands of senses. The Saturnians lamented that they could only live 15,000 years, and their existence was just a moment of a long river of time, and they were basically going to die when they were born. The little adult comforted that his lifespan was seven hundred times that of theirs, but after death, the body returned to all things, which is another kind of existence.
The little adult and the Saturn people met too late, so they started a philosophical journey together. After visiting Jupiter and Mars, they arrived at Earth - a dim ball the size of a mud ball. Mediterranean is a small pool, and the Atlantic Ocean is just a small pond. Saturn people were disappointed and felt that the earth's structure was too rough and there would be no rational people living here. However, the little adult discovered the tiny people on the earth using a diamond necklace as a microscope.The little adult cut off his nails and talked to the little people on the earth. A mathematician on the earth used a tree and a series of triangles to measure the little adult's height. A philosopher on the earth told the little adult that at this moment there were 100,000 people wearing hats on the earth who were killing another 100,000 people wearing hijabs, killing and being killed have not changed.
A man wearing a square hat (referring to a theologian) actually said arrogantly that Thomas Aquinas's book has made it clear that the way you two aliens behave and your planet, together with the sun and the stars, all exist for us mankind. The little adult and the Saturnian were amused by these arrogant and stupid remarks and laughed loudly and leaned back and forth. When he left the earth, the little adult gave the earthlings a book. The book, which was later sent to the Paris Academy of Sciences, was opened by the old secretary but found that it was blank. At the end, the old secretary said meaningfully: "This is not beyond my expectations."
Like Rousseau, Voltaire was once questioned whether he was a philosopher. Because anyone who wants to find a perfect philosophical system will be disappointed when facing Voltaire, Voltaire's thoughts are anti-system and anti-metaphysics. Voltaire has no theoretical innovations and insights on "ontology" and "epistemology". He just based on the thoughts of Locke and Newton, advocates rationality, criticizes feudal autocracy and religion, attaches importance to science and technology and culture, and advocates social reform.
Voltaire believes that the greatest talent of human nature is freedom, "I don't agree with every word you say, but I swear to defend your right to speak to the death." Freedom is a natural right of man. Abolishing privileges and fighting for freedom should be the primary task of the Enlightenment, and the principle of freedom has also become the social ideal that Voltaire pursues throughout his life. Voltaire wrote in "Philosophical Communication": "We must use human reason to establish a reasonable legal state to protect all freedom of persons and property, freedom of public opinion and freedom of belief."
On the 100th anniversary of Voltaire's death, Hugo said in his mourning: "In the fruitful 18th century, Rousseau represented the people and Voltaire represented the people. Those powerful writers disappeared, but they left behind the soul and revolution. The French Revolution was their soul."
Voltaire and Rousseau, the happy enemies, quarreled for a lifetime but chose to shut their mouths in the same year. They both died in the same year.
Don’t like each other when they are alive, but they sleep in the same acupoint when they die. More than 200 years have passed, Voltaire and Rousseau are resting in the Pantheon in France. They can no longer be as energetic and thought-provoking as they were more than 200 years ago.
Voltaire and Rousseau
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