Original title: "Wang Yuanzhou | Opportunities for the Transformation of the Tributary System—Based on the Investigation of "Yan Xinglu" from 1873 to 1876" Professor of the Research Center for Modern and Contemporary Chinese History, Department of History, Peking University, Ph.D

Original title: "Wang Yuanzhou | The Opportunity for the Transformation of the Tributary System - Based on the Investigation of "Yanxinglu" from 1873 to 1876"

Wang Yuanzhou

Professor of the Research Center for Modern Chinese History, Department of History, Peking University, PhD in History, Yonsei University, South Korea, The main research directions are the history of modern Chinese political thought and social economy, the history of Sino-South Korean relations, and the history of South Korea. He is the author of "The Evolution of Little China Consciousness: A Study of the Intellectual History of Sino-South Korean Relations in Modern Times" and so on.

summary: Although China has experienced two Opium Wars and allows foreign ministers to be stationed in Beijing, North Korea's ruling Heungseon Daewongun still adheres to the policy of seclusion, and domestic public opinion has always been wary. After Gojong came to power in 1873, the policy changed, and the Treaty of Ganghwa Island was signed with Japan in 1876. During this period, North Korea hoped to obtain relevant foreign information from China. However, judging from the interactions between Zhang Shizhun, Wan Qingli, Li Hongzhang and North Korean envoys, Chinese scholars were concerned about North Korea's domestic public opinion and the suspicion of diplomatic diplomacy. It is quite cautious, even if it is frank, it cannot play a big role due to the caution and stubbornness of most Korean scholars.

After the establishment of diplomatic relations between South Korea and Japan, North Korea sent envoys to Japan. Since then, North Korea has attached great importance to understanding the outside world from Japan, and even sent gentlemen tour groups to Japan for inspection. On the contrary, it has not done anything similar to China. It only sends overseas students to study machinery manufacturing in China. I am afraid that some of them This is also the reason. At this time, the suzerain-vassal relationship had a good opportunity to make adjustments according to changes in the situation and better cope with the impact of the outside world. However, it ended up being full of scruples and sticking to the old ways, which laid the seeds for the subsequent end of the suzerain-vassal relationship.

Keywords: tribute system; "Yanxinglu"; ​​Zhang Shizhun; Wanqingli; Li Hongzhang

On the eve of the Korean peninsula entering modern times, the powerful Xingxuan Dayuanjun implemented a policy of expelling evil. After experiencing Bingyin's foreign harassment and Xinwei's foreign harassment , it implemented a strict policy of seclusion and was unwilling to make treaties and trade with Western countries. Rebuke and monument. Faced with requests from Western countries and Japan for treaties, trade, missionary work, and reconciliation, the Korean government and the public could only regard war and defense as their righteousness. However, after Emperor Gojong came to power in 1873, North Korea's foreign policy changed rapidly, and the Treaty of Ganghwa Island was signed with Japan in 1876. North Korea has since been included in the modern international system, which is also regarded as the beginning of the modern history of the Korean Peninsula.

It only took two or three years from the change of foreign policy in 1873 to the opening of Hong Kong in 1876. Due to the extreme seclusion policy of Daewonjun , North Korea was seriously underprepared for foreign knowledge. Therefore, after 1873, it was eager to understand Japan and Russia. and other Western countries. At this time, North Korea’s only channel to understand the outside world was China. The above situation is also reflected in "Yan Xing Lu" in the early 1870s. Since the 18th century, the exchanges between North Korean envoys and Chinese scholar-officials have been expanding day by day, and Chinese scholar-officials have also undergone great changes in their thinking after the Opium War. New books such as "海国图志" were also quickly spread through Yanxing Korea. So, at the level of actual interaction between North Korean envoys and Chinese scholar-bureaucrats, is there any in-depth communication between them on their understanding of the current situation and their countermeasures?

This article uses "Yan Xing Lu" as the main material and gives a brief answer to this question by examining the interactions between North Korean envoys and Zhang Shizhun, Wan Qingli and Li Hongzhang. Although the number of people investigated is limited, these three people are representative. One is an ordinary official, one is the Minister of Rites who often receives Korean envoys, and the other is the Minister of Foreign Affairs who was later responsible for Korean affairs. The investigation of the interactions between these three people and Korean envoys before 1876 will not only help to understand the international knowledge reserves of the Korean government and the public before the opening of Hong Kong, but also analyze the sensitivity of the suzerain-vassal relationship in responding to changes in the overall world situation. It provides a useful perspective for us to understand the evolution of the later Qing-Korean suzerain-vassal relationship from a deeper level.

1. Zhang Shizhun

Zhang Shizhun, also known as Shuping, nicknamed Wuxi, and also named Meishi, was born in the sixth year of Daoguang (1826). He was elected in the twenty-sixth year of Daoguang (1846) and served as secretary of the cabinet. Later, he served as director and member of the Ministry of Punishment. Wailang. Gong Fangwei's "History of Epigraphy and Painting in the Two Dynasties of the Qing Dynasty" said that Zhang Shizhun was "good at painting ink plums, and his landscapes were dry and moist. He lived in Beijing for a long time and was as famous as Shanyin Zhou Shaobai. His calligraphy is also vigorous."

Zhou Shaobai, also known as Zhou Tang, had many contacts with North Korean envoys. "North Koreans who came to the capital always begged for his paintings." The same is true for Zhang Shizhun. In the second year of Tongzhi (1862), Pu Yongfu, who came to Beijing as the deputy envoy of Dongzhi and Xie En, was the first to make a deal with Zhang Shizhun. Since then, North Korean envoys have continued to communicate with him. Zhang Shizhun lives near Liulichang, adjacent to Wang Shizhen's former residence. North Korean envoys will go to Liulichang to visit after arriving in Beijing. Wang Shizhen is a domestic poet and is also highly respected by Korean literati, so it is appropriate to visit his home. very convenient. In the twelfth year of Tongzhi (1873), Zheng Jianchao, the North Korean winter solstice envoy who came to Beijing, and others "built their residence because of their visit to Ruan Ting's old residence."

However, unlike Zhou Tang, Zhang Shizhun was mainly praised by the Koreans for his calligraphy and poetry, and they praised him for his calligraphy and poetry. For example, Shin Hyun, who later signed the Ganghwa Island Treaty with Japan on behalf of Korea, was a famous Confucian general who was also good at calligraphy and poetry. He loved Jang Shijun's calligraphy. He once asked dozens of his works to be criticized by Jang Shijun, hoping to get Jang Shijun's approval. Works, so Zhang Shizhun also sent dozens of works to him. Therefore, Jiang Wei later said in the poem "Presenting Zhang Wuxi to the Master of the World for Farewell": "A piece of Dharma book has a spiritual connection thousands of miles away, as small as the three islands chasing immortals. I have sent it and come here. After thinking about it, I feel pity for him." "

Park Yongfu was famous for his poetry and prose in North Korea. In Beijing, he also sang poetry and prose with Dong Wenhuan and others, and published a collection of poetry and prose. His interaction with Zhang Shizhun should also be based on poetry and singing. On October 24, the twelfth year of Tongzhi (1873), when the North Korean Winter Solstice envoy and his party set out, Li Jianchang gave Jiang Wei the "Selected Poems of Han Four Guests", a collection of songs he sang with Zheng Jiyu, Hong Qizhou, and Li Chongxia, and asked him to take it to Beijing. Asking Chinese literati to criticize, Jiang Wei immediately asked Zhang Shizhun to comment. Jiang Wei also brought his poem draft to Zhang Shizhun for criticism.

However, the biggest difference between Zhang Shizhun and Zhou Tang is that he is also famous among Koreans for his "concurrent policy theory", which Zheng Jianchao, Jiang Wei and others had heard about for a long time before entering Yan. It can be seen from this that Zhang Shizhun’s interactions with North Korean envoys were not limited to calligraphy and poetry, but also included his views on the current situation. After the Opium War, it is nothing new for North Korean envoys to occasionally engage in foreign affairs in their interactions with Chinese scholar-bureaucrats. For example, in the tenth year of Daoguang's reign (1859), when Daken, Jin Dexi, Min Zhixiang, Quan Shiheng and others had written discussions with Huang Juezi, Qian Jiang, Yang Xi, Ni Yinyuan and others, they not only involved Huang Juezi, Qian Jiang His personal experiences and the situation between China and Britain at the time of the Opium War also discussed the issue of North Korean armaments. Quan Baihan affirmed Quan Shiheng's practice of "recording many discussions with Chinese scholar-bureaucrats" in his Yan Xinglu in "The Preface to the Record of Shi Tuan Yan", and said: "Read to Shu Zhai Weng Jiuzhou Ba Li, Wuyue After four sentences, I suddenly felt that there were only a few birds, and Dongpingzi Yijiang felt so majestic and generous. Every time he looked at his vigorous eyebrows and his heart, he could not help but sigh, and there would be great hope in the future. "You!"

However, Pu Guishou, who entered the Yan Dynasty twice in the 11th year of Xianfeng (1861) and the 11th year of Tongzhi (1872), noticed that the scholarly atmosphere in Beijing had changed greatly during this period. There is no good news, and there are many aspiring people like Wang Guzhai who come home to eat. They are all young and new, and they are not very outstanding. Although they have many friends, they are just invited for wine and food. Just laughing and having fun.” Nan Yiyou, who came to Beijing in the 5th year of Tongzhi's reign as the North Korean ambassador and deputy envoy of the Winter Solstice, also felt that Chinese scholar-bureaucrats were unwilling to have contact with North Korean envoys. He said: "Han people often have suspicions and are unwilling to give in.Manchusdo not accept friendship at all, so it is not easy to get to know each other, or they can only talk in court." This feeling is naturally due to changes in Chinese scholarly style, and also due to North Korea.Although Zhang Shizhun is also good at policy discussions among the Koreans, he claimed that he was unwilling to discuss current affairs with the Koreans easily. The reason was that after the Second Opium War, China had basically accepted the situation of entering into treaties and trade with Western countries, and the Koreans For many years, he has always advocated war and defense, so he "has his own feelings, and no one is willing to complain to the Privy Council." In his conversation with Zheng Jianchao and others, Zhang Shizhun also mentioned that he had made friends with more than a dozen North Korean celebrities, but rarely talked about his true thoughts. Although he did touch on some of China's main battles and denouncements during the Opium War, If the discussion involves the slightest bit of content such as peace talks and trade, the North Koreans are not willing to listen. "My brother's absurd words have no origin. When I meet your respected brother alone, I have a certain mind. What I worry about is far away. I am overwhelmed by the ground. I am afraid of my liver and gallbladder. I don't show my talent. My writing is melancholy. I don't know how many generations of noble dynasties there are like my brothers." , Wen Shi discussed, why worry about this matter, this brother is not absurd, happy to tell the truth."

The reason why Zhang Shizhun was willing to elaborate on his views on the current situation to the North Koreans this time was because Zheng Jianchao and others. People took the initiative to ask him for advice on whether Japan would invade North Korea because of his "all-round policy theory". Such conversation content is rarely seen in "Yan Xing Lu", so it is of special significance to understand the interactions between North Korean envoys and Chinese scholar-bureaucrats. Although Zhang Shizhun was willing to have a heart-to-heart talk this time, it was not without taboos. Whenever "the writing was tight or flattering, he would criticize it from below and throw it into flames."

According to Jiang Wei's "Beijing Travel Diary", it is speculated that the written conversation between Zheng Jianchao and others and Zhang Shizhun recorded in "Beihuang Tancao" should be on the 13th of the first month of the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874). The next day Jiang Wei visited again with Zheng Jianchao's letters , the content of the written talk is the appendix "Gu Huan Tan Cao" to "Bei Xuan Tan Cao". Before and after this, Zheng Jianchao, Jiang Wei and others had many interactions with Zhang Shizhun, but they did not involve current affairs. The written conversation on the 13th of the first lunar month was when Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei went to visit Zhang Shizhun from Yuhe Pavilion after breakfast and held it in Zhang Shizhun's Pisces Yizhai. Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei returned at dusk, and the two sides talked for a whole day.

The reason why Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei asked Zhang Shizhun about the situation in Japan was because they heard that in the twelfth year of Tongzhi (1873), the Japanese envoys Soejima Taneomi and Yanagihara Maemitsu who went to China to exchange approval documents for the " Sino-Japanese Repair Regulations" were in court. The Chinese emperor often talked about invading Korea, and wanted to know the contents of the conversations between the Japanese envoys and the Chinese emperor and the Prime Minister's Yamen. In fact, Soejima Taneomi and others discussed the issue of conquest of Korea during their talks with Li Hongzhang. The meeting with Emperor Tongzhi was just a ritual and it was impossible to have such an in-depth conversation.

The reason why North Korea attached great importance to the Japanese envoys' meeting with Emperor Tongzhi was because they also met with ministers from Britain, France, Russia, the United States and the Netherlands . North Korea was worried that Japan would join forces with other countries to invade North Korea. Regarding the issue of Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei, Zhang Shizhun just said: "This is a matter handled carefully by the Prime Minister's Yamen, and no one outside the court has heard about it. Although it may be heard by the eyes and ears, it is nothing more than hearsay and confuses people's opinions. But it is useless to investigate. However, the affairs of the world can be judged according to reason. If I don't ask about the matter, but only ask about the reason, there is still something to say. I don't know what I think." Zhang Shizhun's discussions are all based on this tone.

Zhang Shizhun starts from the situation in China at that time. Although the whole country hates foreigners, the emperor did not call for the expulsion of foreigners because he realized that "the general trend of today is very different from that of ancient times" and had to tolerate foreigners and adopt the policy of "ruling foreigners with my courtesy and justice", emphasizing that " This is how the emperor governs the world." He pointed out that North Korea is now facing two major threats, Russia and Japan, and it must "repair our etiquette and justice to show that it is insurmountable" and must not give up strengths and weaknesses and talk about war easily. This was Zhang Shizhun’s basic proposition, which was exactly the opposite of North Korea’s insistence on war and denouncement of peace at that time. Therefore, although Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei agreed with his point of view, they also mentioned that they could not explain this proposition to the people after returning to the country. It will offend the people of the country."

Regarding Zhang Shizhun's view that both Russia and Japan were major dangers to Korea, Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei asked: "The Japanese are provoking provocations, which is something our country cannot dream of, and as for the Russians, they are even more irrelevant. The situation is Why worry about danger?" Zhang Shizhun emphasized that Russia and Japan have close relations and may unite to invade North Korea. This was exactly what North Korea was worried about, so Zheng Jianchao asked about the Japanese envoy's visit to Emperor Tongzhi and his talks with Li Hongzhang. Zhang Shizhun still shied away by saying that it was a secret code of military affairs. In the end, Zheng Jianchao had to ask him to "make a decision based on what he heard." Reasonable." Express your opinion.

Zhang Shizhun then said that although Japan also has relatively close relations with Britain, France and other countries, it cannot be based on mere speculation as to whether it will join forces to invade North Korea. For North Korea, what is important is not whether Japan will invade South Korea or whether it will unite with other countries to invade, but whether it will strive to strengthen itself early. Therefore, he said: "I am prepared to fight and pay for it. The power is mine, and I am unprepared." Listening to others, China is too big to bear its hardships. Those who look to your country are fortunate to learn from China and have already planned to strengthen themselves." Zhang Shizhun also added a circle to this sentence, because he wanted to emphasize it. proposition.

However, at that time, the North Korean government and the public had not yet realized the seriousness of the dispute between South Korea and Japan, and they would not change course until the outbreak of war. Therefore, Zheng Jianchao wanted to know when Japan would launch a war. This is certainly a difficult question to answer. Zhang Shizhun only speculated that Russia, Britain, France and other countries would not immediately join forces with Japan to invade North Korea, and North Korea should still have time to seek self-strength. Zheng Jianchao also mentioned that North Korea had also been reorganizing its armaments since Bingyin's foreign invasion, but because it did not understand the situation in foreign countries, it had no confidence in victory. Therefore, he hoped that Zhang Shizhun would "explain in detail the strengths and weaknesses of each other."

Zhang Shizhun also emphasized the importance of understanding foreign situations. He talked about the changes in Chinese people's understanding of the West, emphasizing that since the Chinese allowed foreign envoys to be stationed in Beijing, they have lived with the foreign barbarians for more than ten years and have been at peace with each other. This shows that it is different from the wars caused by the inward migration of ethnic minorities in history, and that "the barbarians are Techniques of this kind are unheard of in ancient times, such as the movement of steamboats, boats and carriages, the speed of electric motors in sending letters, the convenience of railways and dirt roads, the sophistication of guns and artillery. They are not secretive, but are willing to show off to others, and even set up factories. Manufacturing and moving with capital and trade means that the desire of the barbarians is not to focus on the people of the land, but to open up foreign lands. This is something we did not expect.

People from various countries gather together and are willing to hear public discussions, but they are not. In my own opinion, because of the rebelliousness of the British and barbarians, I listened to others, gave up the territory again, and called the barbarians on sight. This is because I know the principles and do not rely solely on their strength. This brother said that I can still rule the barbarians with courtesy and justice. ". This is probably what Zhang Shizhun said about the great changes in the world. Therefore, in such a great change, the strategy of preventing foreigners must also change. Therefore, he suggested that North Korea send overseas students to study in China, not only to understand the situation in foreign countries, but also to let foreigners understand North Korea. The good relationship between the two countries is that they can relieve each other's past regrets, and this is the right thing to do."

However, Zheng Jianchao admitted that the domestic public opinion in North Korea was "like a war before the war", and as an important minister in charge, he had to take measures, so he was more concerned about North Korea's good strategies from the perspective of war and defense. In this regard, Zhang Shizhun did not want to say much, but said: "To stop fighting and then fight is beyond the power of man, and it is God." However, "things inherently depend not on Heaven but on man." From the perspective of what man can do, For example, North Korea may be able to fortify its walls and clear the country, and hold on to the danger, but this strategy may be used to deal with Russia, but the threat from North Korea is not just Russia. On the northern border, if the Western barbarians attack the heart of the country, they will ravage a country and there will be more left."

Once such a situation occurs, no matter how good the strategy is, it will not help. Therefore, Zhang Shizhun emphasized that it is still necessary to understand foreign countries and try to resolve disputes. Zhang Shizhun also mentioned that at that time, Li Sunchen also knew from the "Wu Bei Zhi" written by Mao Yuanyi that the Japanese were not accustomed to water warfare, so they were able to win. Therefore, he emphasized: "Today's book on the situation of the Western Yi countries, Xian Cui Jingshi, is Let those who are far-sighted look at it and know what to choose. The reason why I am happy to be my brother is to understand the feelings of others and make good use of opportunities. There may not be anyone who has any unique ideas."

When the two sides talked about this, Zheng Jianchao said: "Brother, this argument can be said to be mutually exclusive, leaving nothing behind. "However, Zheng Jianchao still emphasized that the domestic public opinion in North Korea was blindly focused on war. He also "suggested war and never dared to use words to implement policies." Therefore, what Zhang Shizhun said is temporarily useless to North Korea. North Korea can only rely on China to strengthen itself. Later, the clarification was accomplished, and North Korea was able to protect itself; so he asked Zhang Shizhun for advice on China's internal repair strategy. In fact, he wanted to explore whether China had the ability to protect the country and defend the country from enemies. Zhang Shizhun was even more reluctant to say anything about this, and was evasive. It was beyond the power of an official like him who had been out of touch for ten years, so the conversation between the two parties ended here.

Obviously, Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei were not done yet, so Jiang Wei brought them back the next day. Zheng Jianchao's letter went to visit Zhang Shizhun again. After seeing Zhang Shizhun, Jiang Wei first asked: "Is this the end of yesterday's conversation? Zhang Shizhun also admitted: "This is only half of the article." " Jiang Wei asked if he could continue writing the second half of the article. Zhang Shizhun said: "If it is not timely, then yesterday's conversation has been redundant. And the first half of the text can still be done, but the second half of the text cannot be done. The things in the first half can still be done, but the things in the second half cannot be done. The reason why Zhang Shizhun believed that "the second half of the article cannot be written" was because he was worried that "if the words are leaked, it will not only be useless but also defeat the cause." Jiang Wei said that they would never dare to leak it, and in Zhang Shizhun thinks this is impossible, because "I don't dare to do it. However, if I want to hear this, I want to benefit the country. How can I keep it secret and stop to observe success or failure to see whether it is true or not?" ?

However, I have to show it to others, and if I hear it in the court and wait for the whole country to have a successful conclusion, even if I want to do it, don't let it go, can I get it? "In fact, it was just as Zhang Shizhun expected. Li Jianchang mentioned that after Jiang Wei returned to China, he compiled the contents of his written conversations with Chinese scholar-bureaucrats and showed them to him. The contents were "all taboo in the past and made people horrified", and Jiang Wei " "Reading, sighing and laughing, the spirit flows." Li Jianchang was silent and speechless. Not only Li Jianchang and other friends had seen it, but it should also be widely circulated in Korea. "A Brief Discussion on Strategy" written by Jin Pingmo in October of the sixth year of Guangxu (1880) was suspected. When "Korean Strategy" was written by a North Korean under the guise of Huang Zunxian, Jin Pingmo said: "Jiang Ziqi Yanhao Tancao is similar to this, and may not all be written by Zhang Shizhun. "

Obviously, Zhang Shizhun was disappointed with Zheng Jianchao's repeated remarks that North Korean public opinion was blindly focused on war and that he was powerless. He felt that he was not completely different from the North Korean scholar-bureaucrats he had interacted with before. Indeed, Zhang Shizhun's grand remarks may not have much impact on Zheng Jianchao. . Although Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei had a close relationship and both paid attention to current affairs, Jiang Wei was a scholar in the field, and Zheng Jianchao was an important minister in the court, so Zheng Jianchao had to be more cautious when returning to Gaozong. The explanation for the reason why Emperor Tongzhi met with the envoys from Japan and the five Western countries was similar to Zhang Shizhun's explanation, but it emphasized that there were objections from the imperial censors and the opinions were not adopted. As a result, Gaozong felt that China's "discipline and discipline were weaker than before, showing weakness compared with foreign countries". understanding.

Zheng Jianchao followed Gao Zong's wishes and further emphasized that this was the result of China's appeasement strategy against foreign barbarians since the Second Opium War, and expressed concern about China's future. When Gao Zong asked whether China would expel foreigners When the foreigners arrived, Zheng Jianchao replied: "Chinese people have this intention, and the foreigners have been staying here for a long time. It must be due to the situation that they can drive out the clouds suddenly. " Regarding Zhang Shizhun's core views, Zheng Jianchao did not mention a word. Even when Gaozong summoned him on May 2, the first year of Guangxu (1875), when he was the former minister and the official of the government hall to discuss the issue of whether to accept the Japanese deed, Zheng Jianchao had no idea about his The proposition was only vaguely expressed: "If we resign and retreat now, the friendship between neighbors will be harmed. However, given the nature of the matter, it is difficult to put it into perspective, so I hope to make a decision based on extensive inquiry. After that, he became even more silent when discussing foreign disturbances and coastal defense issues.

And Jiang Wei originally had "three teachings and nine streams, all of which were integrated, and he was especially devoted to the Four Sons' books. He occasionally included the words of Sun and Wu, and he was good at discussing world affairs. "Those who regard the secular world as unconventional and unresponsive will suffer from boredom as a disease of themselves." He "made friends with famous scholars and officials" in Beijing and "returned after exploring all the recent affairs in China and the West." This was probably because he came prepared.It was precisely because of the great gains from this trip to Yan that the following year he went to Yan again with Li Jianchang, the Li Jianchang who was also the envoy to express gratitude for his gratitude. During this trip to Yan, Jiang Wei also brought a letter from Zheng Jianchao to Zhang Shizhun. On the way, Jiang Wei said in a letter to Zheng Jianchao: "You should pay attention to Shuhou and Yizhai, and send a letter to Shenghan." Li Jianchang was not only Jiang Wei's poetic friend, and he also "pays close attention to the names of foreigners in Ming history and the traces of China's recent wars and peace." After arriving in Beijing, he also had contacts with Zhang Shizhun. The "Yan Xing Lu" of Shen Luze, deputy envoy of Xie En during the winter solstice, records that he met with Zhang Shizhun because of Li Jianchang. On the 26th of the first month of the 14th year of Tongzhi (1875), when the three envoys visited Liulichang together, they also paid a visit to Zhang Shizhun. .

However, Li Jianchang and Jiang Wei did not seem to have close contacts with Zhang Shizhun this time. There are no harmonious poems with Zhang Shizhun in Li Jianchang's "Beiyou Poems" and Jiang Wei's "Beiyou Xucao". Li Jianchang's close contacts include Huang Yu, Zhang Jiaxiang , Xu Yu, etc. Jiang Wei's "Guhuantang Collecting Grass" contains a conversation with Huang Yu. Because the Ministry of Rites of the Qing Dynasty consulted North Korea at that time, Japan might send troops to North Korea after withdrawing its troops from Taiwan. Jiang Wei wanted to inquire about the details and asked Huang Yu about several issues in China's exchanges with Western countries since the Opium War. Unfortunately, we can only see the questions drafted by Jiang Wei, but not Huang Yu’s answers. It is also unknown whether he and Huang Yu had a written discussion on these issues.

In any case, after Jiang Wei returned to China this time, because the domestic situation in North Korea had changed a lot, he "explained a little bit of what it contained, and became famous", and as a staff assistant, Shen Shi signed the "Ganghwa Island Treaty" with Japan. ”, but after that Jiang Wei was still depressed and frustrated, and even more so was his poverty. Zhang Shizhen abandoned his official position and left Beijing, and traveled to the famous mountains and rivers in Sichuan and Guizhou. He did not return to Yuanling to settle down until the seventh year of Guangxu (1881).

2. Wanqingji

Wanqingji was transferred to the position of Minister of Rites in November of the fourth year of Tongzhi (1865). He held this position for more than ten years and had frequent contact with North Korean envoys. In the fifth year of Tongzhi (1866), Li Xingmin, the North Korean winter solstice envoy who came to Beijing, met Wanqingli and mentioned Bingyin's foreign interference in his letter to Wanqingli the following year. Although the content was roughly the same as the message from the King of Joseon to the Ministry of Rites of the Qing Dynasty, after receiving the letter, Wan Qingli still felt that discussing the matter in a private letter was against the system, so he attached Li Xingmin's letter to the Joseon message and sent it along. The Ministry of Rites' message to the King of Korea was sent back to North Korea. The Korean court also believed that accompanying ministers should not write private letters to Qing ministers and punished Li Xingmin.

In the first month of the 10th year of Tongzhi (1871), the American Minister Naffield asked the Prime Minister's Office to send a letter to North Korea through the Korean Minister. The Prime Minister's Office openly refused, but secretly approved the delivery through the Ministry of Etiquette . Although the Ministry of Rites handed over the letter to the Ministry of War on the second day of February and forwarded it to North Korea via the post station, it had objections to the practices of the Prime Minister's Yamen, so at the same time of forwarding it, it reported: "The ministers will consult with all the tributary states according to the rules. OK, there has never been any matter of transmitting letters. Due to the system, we have to abide by the old rules. This time, a letter from the United States was approved by the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office and forwarded to North Korea by the Ministry. It was a temporary expedient. Therefore, the minister does not dare to be rigid. Secondly, I am afraid that there will be obstacles in the future when foreign countries apply for licenses. If there are letters from other countries in the future, the minister will still abide by the old rules and not deliver them on behalf of the whole system. "

The above two incidents are enough to show that Wan Qingli, as the Minister of Rites, adheres to the tribute system, but they do not mean that Wan Qingli personally does not care about the situation in North Korea. On the contrary, he paid great attention to the movement to denounce evil and defend justice in North Korea. When the Prime Minister's Office requested that the United States deliver a letter to North Korea through the Ministry of Rites, the North Korean Winter Solstice envoy was in Beijing and should have heard about the whole story. Therefore, after Jiang Zhu returned to China, he said when he entered the palace on April 17: "The Ministry of Rites has repeatedly blocked this message, and Prince Gong has also urged him to send it. Now the whole world knows that our country will not trade. , If peace is promised, the world will laugh. "

Wanqingqing won a good reputation in North Korea. Moreover, he agreed with Daewongun's policy of seclusion and even had contact with Daewongun. On the second day of February in the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874), Wan Qingli mentioned in a conversation with Zheng Jianchao, the North Korean winter solstice envoy, that Lord Dayuan had given him a Mohu engraved with the four characters "Expelling Evil and Defending Righteousness" years ago.Wan Qingli agreed with North Korea's policy of "expelling evil and defending justice", but he never mentioned it publicly in his interactions with others. Even the Mo Hua given to him by Lord Dayuan was kept secret for fear of being leaked and known to other countries.

During this period, Wan Qingli had close contacts with North Korean envoys, including those who later disagreed with Da Yuanjun on the policy towards Japan. In the eleventh year of Tongzhi (1872), Pu Guishou congratulated the envoy to Yan, and he had close contacts with Wan Qingli. Wan Qingli insisted on treating him as a brother, so Pu Guishou later wrote to Wan Qingli as "Yongsou Shangshu brother" "Your Excellency" is appropriate. Park Guishou once went to the Ecun Bookstore in Wanqingli to have a private conversation with him. After Pu Guishou returned to China, he wrote in a letter to Wan Qingli: "When I was in the capital, I only met privately again and again, mostly to discuss matters. If I am an academic and economic man, I have long wanted to challenge the elegant people, but I can't do it." Then, the "academic economy" discussed by Park Guishou and Wan Qingli should also involve current affairs. Park Guishou said in another letter to Wan Qingli: "Even when the minister comes to the country, the relationship is worried, which is unusual. Zeng was here. The village dialogue also took this into account, so why not relax in it!"

After the Korean Winter Solstice envoy Zheng Jianchao and others came to Beijing in the twelfth year of Tongzhi (1873), they also hoped to have the opportunity to have a private conversation with Wan Qingli. On the seventh day of the first lunar month of the thirteenth year of Tongzhi (1874), Zheng Jianchao sent a first translator to send a letter to Wan Qingli, requesting a meeting. Wan Qingli asked that he had something to do, and said that he would notify the North Korean envoy when he was free, and there was no need to ask frequently. There was still no news until the end of the first month. Zheng Jianchao and others couldn't wait any longer and sent their first translator to inquire. Only then did Wan Qingli agree to meet with the three envoys of North Korea on the second day of February. On this day, the three envoys from North Korea came to Wan Qingli's house, and Wan Qingli also received them at the Jicun Bookstore. The content of this conversation is also contained in "Beizhao Tancao".

"Bei Xuan Tan Cao" specifically states that because this conversation "the words involve a lot of emotion, they will be destroyed along with the book to prevent the words from leaking out. After returning to the library, the three envoys will sit down and remember the meaning of the words, so it is impossible to recite the entire article. It is not similar to the writing and ink written by Chinese and Korean people, and those who read it will forgive it." It can be seen that Wan Qingli was quite cautious about this conversation. This was probably the reason why he had repeatedly declined before.

In this conversation, Wan Qingli was very concerned about North Korea's armaments and mentioned the benefits of China's establishment of Shenjiying . Zheng Jianchao and others explained that North Korea has also attached great importance to military preparations since Bingyin's foreign invasion, and even emphasized that "Shipo Jun has worked hard for ten years, and Zhuan used it to fight the troops. All methods of selection and refining should be used to the extreme." However, "in the end, it should be used with No, how can we predict the situation? We should only rely on the Heavenly Dynasty to guide us with strategies for victory."

Like Zhang Shizhun, Wan Qingli also believes that Russia and Japan are the biggest dangers to North Korea. He said: "Your country seems to have two troubles, the Japanese in the east and the Russians in the north. The Russians have become stronger recently, and they are eyeing them eagerly to invade and occupy neighboring countries. It is especially advisable to prepare for strict defense." Zheng Jianchao and others said that North Korea was already provoking unprovoked provocations against Japan. Unexpectedly, North Korea knew nothing about Russia, so North Korea particularly wanted to know about the situation in Russia and Japan. Regarding this question, Wan Qingli did not answer directly. He just said: "If he comes with courtesy, I will answer him with courtesy. If he does not come with courtesy, I will refuse him with courtesy. Be careful not to provoke." It can be seen that although Wan Qingli agrees North Korea's policy of "expelling evil and defending justice" and recommends that North Korea strengthen its military preparedness, but also hopes that North Korea will not easily conflict with foreign countries.

Perhaps Zheng Jianchao and others also felt the self-contradiction of Wan Qingli's claims, so they did not understand Wan Qingli's intention in saying this. When they were about to ask further, Wan Qingli wrote on another piece of paper: "Foreign The barbarians still respect your country, and it is Shipo who persists in repelling evil." He heard that Lord Dayuan was suffering from eye disease and could not handle government affairs normally, so he was worried that foreign countries would take the opportunity to force North Korea to enter into a treaty and trade. Then talking about the situation in Japan, Wan Qingli also believed that Japan "is a newly created foreign country", which is similar to the Japanese-Oceanic unity theory in North Korea that denounces evil and defends righteousness. Zheng Jianchao and others also asked about the situation of Western countries. Wan Qingli mentioned that France was at war with Vietnam , probably the same as Zhang Shizhun. From this, it was judged that Western countries would not jointly invade North Korea with Japan for the time being.

The reason why North Korea is unwilling to enter into treaties and trade with Western countries is that it is worried that opium will flow into North Korea.On the way to Yan, Zheng Jianchao and others heard that the Qing Dynasty's ban on smoking was not very strict. Wan Qingli also admitted that the ban on smoking was limited to Kinki, and other provinces did not interfere. He also said: "In Daoguang Dynasty, the ban was too strict, and the tameness led to foreign changes. This "The spread of Catholicism is another issue that worries North Korea, so Zheng Jianchao and others asked again: "China is vast and contains a vast territory. For example, the earth is all-encompassing, but now it is different. Is it possible that students who study ginseng in the best place will not be worried about being infected gradually?" Wan Qingli replied: "In China, none of the scholars or officials are infected with evil religions. Those who are infected with evil will just arise and perish on their own. "It can be seen that Wanqingqiu is also quite conservative in its attitude towards Catholicism.

Finally, Wan Qingli mentioned his concerns about having private contacts with North Korean envoys. He said: "My position is suitable for the Ministry of Rites, so I have to hand over to your country's envoys. If I move to another department, I don't have to deal with him. There are also discussions in the court, so I don't dare to do it." Zheng Jianchao and others said: "Zhong The court is full of kindness to Xiaobang, and the Lord is the same as Shipo. How can you not violate the rules in your position?" Although Zheng Jianchao and others said this, when they met with Wan Qingli again, Wan Qingli was confused. Qingli still excused himself because he was unavailable, and it was not until the third day of February, the tenth day of the second lunar month that the envoy went to the Ministry of Rites to receive the horse banquet that he saw Wan Qingli again, who was attending the banquet. Since then, he has never met in private again.

In fact, before Zheng Jianchao and others had private talks with Wan Qingli, Lord Dayuan had already resigned from office due to illness, Gaozong was in charge of his own affairs, and the Min family took control of the political power. It is still unknown what impact this incident will have on Wanqingli, who is closely related to Dayuanjun. In June of the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874), because the Frenchman Prosper Marie Giquel predicted that Japan might unite France and the United States to attack North Korea after withdrawing from Taiwan, the Prime Minister's Yamen once again requested to secretly consult North Korea through the Ministry of Rites, and the Ministry of Rites Still do it. On June 29, Park Guisou, who served as the right councilor, sent Wan Qingli a letter through the counselor sent by North Korea to Beijing. The matter was also mentioned in the letter, indicating that the North Korean court was discussing countermeasures and sent counselors. Go to Beijing to ask for instructions.

Park Guishou emphasized in the letter: "The Eastern Kingdom is not skilled in military affairs, and the situation is peaceful and peaceful. What he said is that he repairs the armor and manages the army. He talks loudly and does not understand the meaning of attacking, planning and eliminating the army. He only praises Jia Yong for his victory. , How can you know that the enemy knows yourself?" Park Guishu hoped that Wan Qingli could help mediate and have China invoke the clause in the "Sino-Japanese Reconciliation Regulations" that the territories of both parties should not be infringed to dissuade Japan. He said: "It is already known that China and North Korea have nothing to do with resolving difficulties. However, we have heard that Japan's treaty contains language such as non-invasion of China's vassal states. Now that Japan has come to Beijing to set up a pavilion, it must have The people in charge are just like foreigners, questioning and admonishing them according to their treaties. If the court thinks about this, it is really a way to resolve disputes. This is not the responsibility of the officials of the Ministry of rites. What's your job? However, it's not unreasonable to recite this sentence for the great people of China and North Korea. I'm lucky to pay attention to it. How about it? "The counselor brought back Wan Qingli's reply, "Genuang has thousands of words, and he is sincere and sincere. ". It's a pity that I haven't seen the original text, so I don't know what exactly Wan Qingli talked about. At this time, Park Guishou had resigned from the post of right councilor and had been reassigned to the idle position of judging central government affairs. When North Korean envoys went to Yan during the winter solstice this year, although Pu Guishou also asked someone to bring letters to Wan Qingli, he did not mention current affairs such as negotiations between North Korea and Japan. North Korea's Winter Solstice envoy Li Huizheng, deputy envoy Shen Luze and petitioner Li Jianchang, as well as Jiang Wei and others who followed Li Jianchang to Beijing, have no records of private conversations with Wan Qingli. Wan Qingli's reply to Park Guishou was just some words of greeting. In November of the first year of Guangxu (1875), the Korean court finally decided to accept the Japanese deed. It can be seen that Wan Qingli was more cautious about contacting North Koreans privately after Daewuanjun stepped down, and did not play an important role in the critical period of North Korea's policy change.

3. Li Hongzhang

In the eleventh year of Tongzhi (1872), Pu Guishou met Wu Dacheng when he came to Beijing as a congratulatory envoy. Wu Dacheng gave him a set of "Zeng Wenzhengwen Notes". He later said in a letter to Wu Dachang: "When I came back and read it, I admired it so much that I wished I could live with it so that I could have the best view of the world. I have great achievements in writing, academics and economics, and I have all the equipment to pray to the previous generations. Before he was prosperous, he was born in the Holy Age and breathed out the breath of Confucianism.This book is just a manuscript. It is unknown whether the complete collection can be reproduced. It is a quick glance, but it may not be easy to obtain. Duke Zeng died in Renshen, and in what year did Yue Jiang live? How long was his lifespan? "It can be seen from this that although Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Li Hongzhang and others were already powerful in China at that time and famous all over the world, Korean scholar-officials like Park Guishou who cared about current affairs still knew very little about them.

In fact, on the 11th of Tongzhi In 1872 (1872), after the Prime Minister's Office requested the Ministry of Rites to deliver the letter of the American Minister Rofield to North Korea, on the first day of February, he also sent a letter to Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, the Minister of Commerce of the North and South, asking them to guard against Japan secretly helping the American Minister Rofield to go there. Goryeo provoked. As the Minister of Beiyang, Li Hongzhang has been paying attention to North Korea's defense since this period and has always played an important role in the North Korean issue.

In the first month of the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874), Zheng Jianchao and Jiang Wei also mentioned Li Hongzhang in their written talks with Zhang Shizhun. Zheng Jianchao said: "I heard that the Japanese envoys returned to Tianjin and met with Prime Minister Li and threatened to invade our country. Prime Minister Li rebuked Yun with words. "But Zheng Jianchao did not know the name of "Prime Minister Li" at this time, nor did he know his official position, nor did he know why the Japanese envoy went to Tianjin to talk to Li Hongzhang about the Korean issue. Zhang Shizhun explained: "Prime Minister Li, named Hongzhang, has repeatedly After establishing great military exploits and meritorious service, he reached the position of Taisi. However, because of his troubles in Jifu, he was appointed governor of Zhili. After the death of Zeng Wenzhenggong, he took up this position. The imperial court relied on the Great Wall, and the foreign officials were also convinced. He did not believe in the alliance between Jin and Chu, but asked Ji Lu for a word. Li Xiang was probably close to him, so the trouble was eliminated. How lucky he was!" Zheng Jianchao and others wanted to know the specific content of the meeting between Japanese envoy Soejima Taneomi and Li Hongzhang. Since the relevant content had been transmitted to North Korea, Zheng Jianchao and others believed that the matter should not be kept confidential. Zhang Shizhun should be able to tell the truth in detail, but Zhang Shizhun still said that He refused to answer this because it was "a secret message from the military affairs department" and advised Zheng Jianchao and others not to believe the rumors.

In the 13th year of Tongzhi's reign (1874), the North Korean envoy who came to Beijing to congratulate and express gratitude was also very concerned about Li Hongzhang. The news was also circulated in the streets. After returning to China, when Emperor Gaozong asked if there were many Westerners and Japanese in Beijing, deputy envoy Li Chunyi replied: "There are only a few foreigners, and the Japanese are even fewer than those in other countries." In September, nearly 10,000 foreigners came to Tianjin, and there were many requests for marriage, tax collection from Tongzhou and Tianjin, etc. Li Hongzhang, the governor of Zhili, had the wisdom to form an array in Tianjin to reject them. If the foreigners invaded, they would He immediately informed the court that he wanted to destroy them. This is not something that can be seen from literary relics, but from rumors. "

After the "Yunyang Incident" occurred in August of the first year of Guangxu (1875), Japan's Sen. Sen politely went to China as envoy and also went to Baoding to hold talks with Li Hongzhang. The North Korean side was also very concerned about the content of this talk. This year's Li Yuyuan, the envoy of the Joseon Dynasty, included in his "Jicha Rilu" "Li Zhongtang of Baoding Prefecture, Tianjin and the Japanese envoy Sen's polite questions and answers", but it was marked as "The message of the Ministry of Rites in the capital will be delivered immediately", which shows that it is a copy of the message of the Ministry of Rites. However, Li Hongzhang later mentioned in his letter to the Prime Minister's Office that Li Yuyuan had secretly discussed peace and war with Jige and others when he was in Beijing. Because of this, when Li Yuyuan passed by Yongping Mansion on his way back to China, he took the initiative to ask for help. When You Zhikai asked why, Li Yuyuan also expressed his desire to discuss current affairs with Li Hongzhang. He recorded in "Ji Cha Ri Lu": "Yu Suidao said that if I have national affairs related to Japan, this is not the case. Nothing can be done in the nave. Later, when Li Yuyuan explained his intention at this time, he also said that because Li Hongzhang "is the chief minister of the Central Plains, he may have the ability to support him."

At Li Yuyuan's repeated request, You Zhikai agreed to forward the letter to him. From then on, Li Yuyuan and Li Yuyuan Letters were exchanged between Li Hongzhang and Li Hongzhang, perhaps because he heard that Li Yuyuan showed better insight and strategy than ordinary Koreans in his interactions with Jige and others, and felt that he was "sophisticated and knowledgeable about current affairs." Therefore, he was willing to correspond with him and wanted to influence North Korea's foreign policy. However, until the North Korean Winter Solstice returned to Nan Tingshun and others on March 21, the second year of Guangxu (1876), Gaozong was still asking " Who is Li Hongzhang? What's the matter?" question, which shows that Gaozong still didn't understand Li Hongzhang.

Regarding Gaozong's question, Nan Tingshun replied: "Fang Yizhili, who came from Tianjin and lived in Tianjin, is prestige, and the foreigners are hiding, and the people's hearts depend on it. Suppression is over."The petitioner Yin Zhidan added: "The general outline is contained in the records of hearing and seeing. "It can be seen that understanding Li Hongzhang's situation has become one of the main contents of North Korea Yan's exercise in targeting the country. Therefore, North Korea has more and more understanding of Li Hongzhang. In the fourth year of Guangxu (November 28, 1878), he returned and announced his obituary as a servant. At that time, Gaozong once asked: "Now Prince Gong does not intervene in the government affairs, but Li Hongzhang is in charge?" Hong Zaizan, the petitioner, said: "Of course." It can be seen that Gaozong has grasped the changes in the political situation of the Qing Dynasty.

However, Li Hongzhang was not aware of the changes in the political situation of the Qing Dynasty. Little is known about the domestic situation in North Korea. On July 4, the fifth year of Guangxu's reign (1879), the Prime Minister's Office requested that all the articles stated by Ding Richang in May be conveyed to North Korea as Li Hongzhang's personal wishes through the correspondence between Li Hongzhang and Li Yuyuan. , to persuade North Korea to enter into treaties and trade with Western countries. Until this time, Li Hongzhang still did not know much about Li Yuyuan's situation. He said in the memorial: "Although Li Yuyuan is now an official, it is said that he is the king's uncle and has been Yuanfu for a long time, so he is still able to preside over it. He is also well aware of current affairs when it comes to major political affairs. If he can consult extensively and prepare for rainy days, it will be of benefit to the overall situation."

Although the Prime Minister's Office at that time believed that "the desire of countries in Europe and the West to trade with North Korea was of great concern to the overall situation," they were stuck in the vassal system. Taking into account that "the country's political and religious prohibitions are difficult to impose, the court cannot express this intention to North Korea, but if it wants to grant vassal status, it cannot ignore it", so it had to take this policy as a last resort. But it was not only the personal relationship between Li Hongzhang and Li Yuyuan. It is unreliable, and it also makes an overly optimistic estimate of Li Yuyuan's character and his status and role in the Korean political situation. Although Li Yuyuan once served as a counselor, he resigned before going to China in the first year of Guangxu and was appointed as a counselor. He also took the initiative to alienate himself from the center of power and lived in his hometown. He not only resigned from various part-time jobs, but also begged for retirement. In early November of the fifth year of Guangxu (1879), he temporarily went to Beijing to attend the court meeting. As soon as it was over, he wanted to return to his hometown.

In September of this year (1879), Li Hongzhang sent a letter to Li Yuyuan to persuade North Korea to make peace with the Japanese. Because Li Yuyuan was recovering in his hometown, he was delayed for more than a month and then returned to Hanyang. The ministers discussed together and rejected Li Hongzhang's suggestion. On November 12, Li Yuyuan wrote a reply and gave it to Xie En and the Winter Solstice Envoy who were still in Yizhou, and asked them to forward it to Li Hongzhang through You Zhikai. When he arrived at Yongping Mansion, he had no choice but to take the letter to Beijing because of his absence. On December 26, the first translator Bian Yuangui heard that You Zhikai was outside Beijing, so he went to deliver the letter in the first month of the following year (1880). On the 17th, Bian Yuangui went to Baoding to discuss military matters with Li Hongzhang, but was blocked by the Yamen Admiral. He formally made a request to the Ministry of Rites, but was not approved. Later, a North Korean counselor came to Tianjin and came back to tell Li Yuyuan that Li Hongzhang had no effect on the matter. It's a pity. After that, Li Hongzhang wrote to Li Yuyuan, but Li Yuyuan never replied. Although the informal communication channel for correspondence gained some legitimacy due to the Prime Minister's Office's request to use this channel to persuade North Korea to conclude treaties and trade with Western countries, it did not bring about fundamental changes in the vassal system, and it did not develop in the modern Qing Dynasty. It plays a very important role in the exchanges between South Korea and South Korea. However, although North Korea rejected Li Hongzhang's suggestion, it was still grateful to Li Hongzhang for safeguarding North Korea. On the second day of April in the sixth year of Guangxu (1880), when he thanked him and returned to the Winter Solstice envoy, Emperor Gaozong said: "It is no accident that Li Hongzhang always thinks about our country's affairs." Han Jingyuan, the envoy, also said: "I am very impressed by his intentions. ”

However, North Koreans also have different understandings of Li Hongzhang. Li Jianchang had a very negative evaluation of Li Hongzhang's urging North Korea to conclude trade treaties with Western countries, showing extreme distrust. He said: "Li Hongzhang wrote to me in order to benefit from the harmonious relationship. Everyone at that time called him Hongzhang, a famous Chinese minister, and his words are trustworthy. Jianchang only said: Hongzhang is a great philistine. The philistine is only the result of the current situation. Now, I can't rely on myself but Hongzhang, otherwise I will be betrayed later." The reason why Li Jianchang's attitude is probably related to the negative impression Yan Xing left on him.Li Jianchang said in his "Epitaph of Jiang Guhuan": "I went to Yan again in the next year, and you followed me again. When I arrived, what I saw and heard may be the same or different from you, but I certainly don't think you have no expedition. When you return, , Things suddenly changed, and there was no way to control the justice of the people who were pursuing their goals. I thought that I was too stupid to predict, so I thanked you for what I had in mind, and I became more and more confused, and you took a moment to find out what it contained. "

It can be seen that Li Jianchang and Jiang Wei had different experiences in China, which led to their different reactions to the changes in North Korea's foreign policy after returning to China. Li Jianchang fully felt the weakness of China and was worried about the future of North Korea. He said in the "Collected Poems and Essays of Mingmeitang": "At the beginning, the imperial court criticized the Japanese and foreign masters for fighting and defending, but they really couldn't get the point. Jianchang felt worried. He said: 'China is the hub of foreign countries, just like entering China. If you look at it well, you can know the feelings of foreign countries. "After entering China, I sighed: "I don't know what China is like. China is like this, and my country will follow."" In early April of the third year of Guangxu (1877). On the 4th, when North Korea thanked the emperor and returned to the Winter Solstice mission, the envoy Shen Chengze also had a low opinion of China. He described to Emperor Gaozong: "Most of the time, the country is doubtful, the people are distracted, the court has no ideas, and the people's business is only declining. When the officials heard about the incident and saw it, there were also many sighs. "

On the seventh day of the eleventh month of the fifth year of Guangxu's reign (1879), Emperor Gaozong also said this when he thanked the three envoys for their resignation during the winter solstice. "When I saw the emperor's calendar and the counselor's handbook, I found out that the Ryukyu king was held by the Japanese, and even asked Li Hongzhang and the Ministry of Rites to save him, but they couldn't be saved. This shows how weak a big country is." Gaozong therefore asked for three things. The envoy investigated the situation in detail and reported it, which shows that Emperor Gaozong had high doubts about China's ability to protect North Korea at this time.

4. Conclusion

Since the late 18th century, the exchanges between North Korean envoys and Chinese scholar-officials have gradually expanded, from poetry singing to academic discussions, and then to talking about current affairs. Finally, in modern times, it can be seen from Park Guishu, Zheng Jianchao, Li Yuyuan and others. It can be seen that there is a change from "people and ministers have no diplomacy" to "people and ministers do diplomacy". However, people from the two countries always had concerns in the process of exchanges. Therefore, in the 1860s and 1870s, because China had concluded trade treaties with other countries and allowed foreign ministers to be stationed in Beijing, North Korea still adhered to the policy of seclusion, and domestic public opinion also blindly Advocating the rejection of evil and fighting for defense made Chinese scholar-bureaucrats reluctant to talk more about foreign affairs with the North Korean envoys. Although some of the North Korean envoys were willing to learn about foreign affairs, they were limited by domestic public opinion and could not play a big role. The exchanges between the two peoples have never been able to break through the constraints of the traditional vassal system.

At this time, Wan Qingli, who had long served as the Minister of Rites, was relatively conservative and agreed with Da Yuanjun's policy of seclusion. Even when the Prime Minister's Yamen asked him to secretly deliver a letter from the American envoy to North Korea, he proposed not to do so in the future in order to maintain the traditional vassal system. Ultimately, North Korea signed the Ganghwa Island Treaty with Japan without sufficient knowledge reserves. As North Korea's only channel to understand the outside world, China has not taken the initiative to provide substantial help to North Korea. North Korea's ignorance of the outside world and China's indifference to the negotiations between North Korea and Japan not only led to North Korea's insufficient understanding of some provisions of the Ganghwa Island Treaty, but also put the Qing-Korean suzerain-vassal relationship in a passive position.

Afterwards, without adequate communication and institutional preparation, after failing to persuade North Korea to conclude treaties and trade with Western countries through letters written by Li Hongzhang and Li Yuyuan, they promoted the matter with the "North Korea Strategy". However, it also exacerbated North Korea's domestic civilization. The split between the two major forces of civilizing and expelling evil and protecting righteousness. Japan became the main channel for North Korea to understand the outside world and sent a tour group of gentlemen to Japan for inspection. The civilized and enlightened faction therefore forged an inseparable relationship with Japan and only sent foreign students to Tianjin to study machinery manufacturing. The Qing government's policy towards North Korea obviously failed to keep up with the changes in the situation inside and outside the Korean Peninsula. Instead, it put itself increasingly in a dilemma. The Qing government did not have the determination to actively break the suzerain-vassal system, so it could only deal with it. In the end, it sat back and watched the Qing-Korean suzerain-vassal system being dismembered by Japan, Russia, the United States and other countries, leading to its collapse.

[Note] The article was originally published in "Journal of Fudan University (Social Science Edition)" 2018 Issue 5. To facilitate reading on mobile phones, notes and references are omitted.

Editor: Li Jing