The city of Carthage, located on the coast of today's Tunisia, was a colony established by the Tyre people in the early 8th century BC, during the halcyon days of the metal trade between the Levant and Spain. But Carthage was never just another ordinary Phoenician outpost. Its Phoenician name "Qart-Hadasht" (meaning "new city") indicates that it was established as a colonial settlement. , not just a trading post. The city's location was impeccable, standing at the intersection of the two most important pan-Mediterranean trade routes, the east-west line connecting Spain and Tire, and the north-south line connecting Greece, Italy and the north.
Carthage's transport fleet is the real source of its national power. For hundreds of years, this fleet was the most powerful in the Mediterranean . A small fleet of merchant ships made Carthage the center point of a vast trade network, transporting grain, wine, olive oil, metals, luxury goods, etc. back and forth across the vast Mediterranean region. Not only that, if some Greek and Roman information sources in later generations are true, Carthage also explored all the way into the Atlantic Ocean, and its journey was as far away as Cameroon in the West African region and Brittany in northern France.
Carthage quickly became one of the major commercial "power plants" in the ancient Mediterranean region. In the early days, luxury goods were imported from the Levant, Egypt, and other Near Eastern regions, but by the mid-7th century BC, Carthage had become a major producer, with a vibrant industrial area outside the city walls. , which produces everything from fine jewelry to hollow ostrich eggs to purple dye. Carthage has always had an ability to successfully reinvent itself, turning disadvantages into advantages. In its early years, Carthage was hampered by its cramped interior and was forced to import large quantities of food. But in the 6th century BC, Carthage began to seize the fertile land of neighboring Libya, and a large number of farms and settlements were established. Carthage also transformed into an agricultural "power plant", and its output Grain and wine not only satisfy domestic consumption but can also be used for export. Carthage even launched a mini-agricultural revolution of its own, inventing the "tribulum plostellum Punicum," or "Carthaginian wheelbarrow," a primitive and simple but very effective threshing machine . The variety of food on the Carthaginian table was dazzling, including wheat and barley, plenty of vegetables and beans, and fruits such as pomegranate, figs, grapes, olives, peaches, plums, Melon and apricot, as well as almond and pistachio . The Carthaginians also ate fish and other seafood, as well as sheep, goats, pigs, chickens and even dogs.
In the first few decades of the 6th century BC, Tire gradually declined, and Carthage emerged as the capital of the Phoenicians in the central and western Mediterranean. It was also the largest city in the ancient world. One of the most dynamic and creative city-states. At the same time, Rome was developing step by step and steadily. Interestingly, Carthage never established a standing army composed of citizens, but relied on mercenaries . But they do have the most formidable armed fleet in the Mediterranean. In the 4th century BC, the Carthaginians first developed the "pentareme", a warship larger and more powerful than the trireme. It dominated naval battles for 200 years. Off the west coast of Sicily, there were several remains of Carthaginian ships that sank to the bottom of the sea. Marine archaeologists examined and found that each part of the ship was carefully marked with a letter. Through this method, complex designs and structures can be easily and quickly transformed. Assemble and piece together. What the Carthaginians developed was actually a "assembled" battleship.
Culturally, the Carthaginians were proud of their Phoenician origins. Their language, Ancient Carthaginian, was once a dialect of Phoenician, and the city's chief gods, Baal Hamon and his companion Tenet, also came from Phoenicia. The religious tradition passed down from the Levant region is a " Moro " worship method, that is, "offering gifts" or "killing sacrifices."The term is often used to describe rituals in which first-born babies are sacrificed to please the gods when a community faces certain disasters.
I once conducted an archaeological excavation at Tophet in Carthage, a temple dedicated to Baal and Tennite, and we unearthed approximately 50 urns. It was a nerve-wracking sight when I first laid my eyes on the contents of one of the urns, which contained small pieces of burnt bones, small amulets, rings and other jewelry mixed with ashes. The urns were piled into crates in my bedroom, which really kept me from sleeping well. Hostile ancient Greek materials once described large-scale infant sacrifice activities. The ghastly scenes could not be dispelled in my sleep for a long time. The most complete and vivid description of this comes from the Sicilian historian Diodorus:
In their city there was a bronze statue of Cronus (the Greek name of Baal Hamon) with his hands outstretched, palms upward. It is tilted towards the ground so that each baby placed on it can smoothly fall into a pit of fire that is like a bloody mouth.
Such testimony is actually intended to discredit the Carthaginians. We should take this with a grain of salt and not believe it entirely. There is actually some tangible evidence that, while the Carthaginians did occasionally practice infant sacrifice in times of real crisis, they mostly used baby animals, and our latest scientific analysis of the urns shows that Most of the sacrifices were actually babies or embryos that had died of natural causes long ago. It seems that only in extreme times of trouble did the Carthaginians give up what they held most dear to please their gods.
However, this sensational emphasis on infant sacrifice conceals the fact that the Carthaginians were more like metropolitan people, and indeed not as different from the primitive barbarism of the Greeks as the description attempts to prove. On Sicily communities of Greeks, Carthaginians, and natives intermarried and worshiped each other's male and female gods, and they also did business, fought wars, and formed political alliances together. These people who might have been mortal enemies have deep and long-standing relationships, and it is often this connection that creates the admirable cohesion between these interconnected central and western Mediterranean regions. The Carthaginians were proficient in Greek culture and language, and their famous general Hannibal was said to have written many books using Greek . The political system of the Carthaginians was also similar to that of Rome. It was a mixture of monarchy, oligarchy and democracy. It was widely praised for its balance and stability, and the person who praised it was Aristo Such celebrities as German .
Carthage's influence spanned a vast area of North Africa, as well as Malta, , Sicily, Sardinia, , Ibiza, and southern Spain, but it did not translate into the empire as we know it. rule. The Carthaginians were interested in controlling their trade monopoly. As long as these aspects were not threatened, other matters were basically left to the locals. Sicily was a place where the Carthaginians were deeply involved in political affairs, precisely because Carthaginian commercial interests were threatened. Sicily has long been divided among its peoples: Phoenician and native cities were in the western half of the island, while Greek city-states were spread out in the east. Beginning in the 5th century BC, Carthage would regularly intervene with arms to defend their allies, particularly against the ambitions of Syracuse, the most powerful Greek city-state on the island. At this time Carthage once again focused its attention primarily on economic aspects. The ancient port built by the Phoenicians on the west coast of the island was an essential route supply station. Those trade routes were very profitable and had long been controlled by the Carthaginians.
Given the scale of Carthaginian investment in Sicily and the island's economic importance, it is no wonder that any Roman intervention would have been unwelcome. In fact, Rome and Carthage had been allies for a long time, with the first treaty signed between the two parties dating back to 509 BC.But the Carthaginians at that time were experienced players, and Rome was full of awe. In recent history, a common enemy brought the two sides together, that is, Pyrrhus . However, after the Romans took control of the Italian peninsula, suspicion between the two grew until finally war between the two superpowers became inevitable, and the battlefield was set in Sicily. The trigger for the
incident was the Sicilian town of Messina and the much larger ancient city of Syracuse. Many years ago, a group of wandering Italian mercenaries known as the "Sons of the God of War" occupied Messina. They were hired to defend the city, but later they massacred the men in the city and took their wives and daughters. But now these guys are worried, fearing that their city will be invaded by force, and their citizens will become subjects of the larger city Syracuse. In order to hedge the risks of , they asked Carthage and Rome for assistance at the same time. Rome sent a force to the island, and soon fell into a stalemate with the nervous Carthaginian defenders. As a result, a major conflict between Rome and Carthage finally broke out in 264 BC, known in history as the " Punic War".
What do the two warring parties represent? What is it that puts both parties in danger? These questions deserve a moment of pause and reflection. The Punic War is often presented as a "great confrontation of civilizations", similar to the conflict between the Greeks and the Persians. However, as we saw in Persian Wars , the truth is often far less obvious. First of all, the country of Carthage has existed for more than 500 years. It is obviously not an invader from the east, although many hostile Greek and Roman writers have gone to great lengths to describe it so. Likewise, Rome had no fleet at all and in fact never fought any overseas wars. The Romans were newcomers to the central and western Mediterranean. If the battle was indeed a contest between the Old World and the New World in the Mediterranean, then Carthage represented the former and Rome the latter. The real difference between the two sides is what each brought to the object of conquest. As long as their trade monopoly was respected, the Carthaginians were generally happy to grant their allies considerable political freedom and cultural autonomy. The role of Carthage resembles that of the federal head of the central and western Mediterranean city. On the Roman side, however, they developed what we now regard as a traditional model of imperialism, a system that was much more centralized in its control of politics, culture, and the economy. At the same time, if the upper echelons of the subject countries are sincerely willing to join this system, they will also receive attractive rewards from Rome.
The First Punic War lasted for more than 20 years, and for most of that time neither side had the upper hand. On land, the fighting was fought almost exclusively in Sicily. The arduous war of attrition left neither side able to break the deadlock. There were few large-scale fierce battles between the two sides. One of them occurred in the city of Agrigento in 261 BC. This was the first time that the Carthaginians used war elephants in the Punic Wars. However, they were of no avail. The Romans relied on their superior infantry to tip the balance of the battlefield in their favor. They later sacked the city and sold its inhabitants, including Greeks, into slavery. Although this move was unpopular, the Senate was inspired by the victory and vowed to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily and decided to form a fleet at the same time.
The deadlock was finally broken at sea, but surprisingly, the outcome of the battle was not Carthage's victory. At the beginning of the war, the Romans were basically a landlubber nation with no navy to speak of. But they later reversed this trend by capturing a Carthaginian ship and using its convenient "bricolage" numbering system to replicate it, plank by plank. However, having a boat is one thing, but knowing how to use it effectively is another. The first collision with the Carthaginians at sea was an utterly humiliating defeat.The consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio, aptly nicknamed "Asnar" or "Donkey", led a small fleet of 17 warships to charge against the enemy. Enter the harbor of the Lipari Islands and capture it. However, "Asna" was soon besieged by a larger Carthaginian fleet. "Asnar" abandoned the ship at the right time and fled to the shore. In the end, all the Roman warships were burned to ashes, and "Asna" himself was captured - Rome's journey to victory at sea, although this was a shameful start, was not completely unexpected.
The Romans would not let such minor setbacks hold them back. They still had more than 130 ships left, and they had developed an ingenious device known as the "dock bridge," or "crow drawbridge." Although the Carthaginian navy is much stronger, this thing can offset the opponent's winning rate advantage. This is some kind of boarding bridge, over 1 meter wide and 20 meters long. The bridge was raised by a pulley and released on the battlefield, whereupon it crashed onto the enemy's deck. The heavy spikes on the underside of the bridge were so sharp that they could pierce the deck timbers and effectively connect the ships together, allowing Roman sailors to cross the bridge and board enemy ships. The genius of this system was that it resolved many of the disadvantages of the Roman fleet, such as lack of maneuverability, slow speed, and inexperienced crews.
The Carthaginians were unaware of this invention and were naturally confident. They fought the first naval battle of the Punic Wars on the coast of Mile, where Milazzo is today. The Carthaginians were very skilled in combat, and they were well versed in the traditional tactics of sinking enemy ships. They knew how to ram the enemy and carve holes in the hull below the waterline. The Greek historian Polybius described the Carthaginians in this way: "They despised the Romans for their poor skills, so everyone was overjoyed and eager to try." The proud Carthaginian fleet swarmed up, lost its formation, and all Falling into a trap set by the Romans. Facing the first wave of Carthaginian ships, the Romans used the "Raven Drawbridge" to great effect, forcing the enemy's flagship to flee. This was the most humiliating defeat. The arrogant Carthaginian navy was defeated by a group of newborn calves.
Despite the success of the Crow Suspension Bridge, both sides still suffered huge losses at sea due to bad weather and fierce fighting. In 249 BC, under the leadership of the incompetent drunkard Publius Claudius Pulca, Rome suffered its most unforgettable defeat. This man was notorious for throwing all the "sacred chickens" used to "please" the gods without eating - a bad omen to be avoided in wartime - Pulka would throw them all overboard, commenting acidly that they might be Thirst rather than hungry. Pulca was later responsible for the largest naval defeat in Roman history, but in the end Rome still won the war because their conquest of Italy could provide them with a larger reserve of manpower and material resources. If a fleet is exhausted, then they will build another batch of ships and send another batch of people. On the other hand, although Carthage seemed to have the upper hand at the beginning of the war, by the mid-40s of the 3rd century BC, they had been dragged down by economic depletion. This fact is illustrated by the fact that the coins minted by the Carthaginians to pay the mercenary troops were of very poor quality, containing inferior silver and often lacking in weight. The problem for the Carthaginians was that Sicily had always been an important source of revenue for the state treasury, and the war had cut off those funds. In addition, within Carthage's vast commercial empire, Rome's growing self-confidence on the sea also seriously affected trade activities in other regions.
In 241 BC, Carthage had to surrender because they could no longer fight. Carthage gave up its overseas possessions and was forced to pay huge compensation to Rome. Not only that, as the most powerful maritime power in the ancient world, Carthage also suffered the humiliation of losing its fleet. The Romans knew nothing about triremes 20 years ago, but at this moment they began to call the Mediterranean Sea "Mare Nostrum", which means "our sea".
However, Carthage did not give up. The best surviving general Hamilcar Barca was sent to southern Spain to revive Carthage's declining national destiny by seizing the rich silver mines in the area. But for much of the journey, Hamilcar and his troops had to walk on their own legs. This sign tells us how far the former maritime overlord has fallen. Hamilcar first conquered the area where the richest mines were located, then completely restructured the mining process, and the profits of the mines soon became considerable. 6.6 million tons of slag, mostly silver, was found at Rio Tinto dating back to that period, which illustrates the unusually large scale of mining by both the Carthaginians and the Romans. By 228 BC, the Carthaginians used the Spanish silver to pay off the last payment of the huge war compensation.
Hamilcar remains in Spain. The Barca family was led first by Hamilcar, then by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, and finally by his own son Hannibal. The family established a powerful regency in southern Spain. They used the abundant supply of silver to develop a huge army with 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and 200 war elephants. You can see how impressive this revival was in the pure silver coins that the Baca family minted for the military, which were extremely pure and rich in silver. With the Carthaginians reviving at such a rate, it was only a matter of time before they collided with the Romans again. Rome was very concerned about the development. They sent an ambassador to Spain and then to Carthage with an ultimatum, but Hannibal ignored it. So the second war between Carthage and Rome began in 218 BC.
The Second Punic War was completely different from the first conflict. First, the Carthaginians no longer had any navy to speak of, so almost all fighting took place on land. Secondly, most of the fighting took place on Italian soil. In 218 BC, Hannibal led his army on an expedition, starting from his base camp in southern Spain and marching all the way to Italy, which also included a column of war elephants. This action shocked the Romans. This is an epic journey, they need to cross the Pyrenees and the Alps, a feat that has never been accomplished before.
In Italy, Hannibal won a series of shocking victories while the Romans became increasingly overwhelmed and demoralized. In 216 BC, Hannibal crushed the Roman legion at Cannae in southeastern Italy. This decisive victory pushed this series of great victories to the pinnacle. By carefully studying the formation of the Roman army , Hannibal had noticed that the infantry in the central position were cramped and close together, making it difficult to mobilize and deploy. So Hannibal deployed an extremely unusual but tactically sophisticated formation. He sparsely placed several light infantry columns in the form of a ladder-shaped battle line in his center position, and equipped both ends of the battle line with elite heavy infantry, which was tantamount to deliberately leaving a weakened central area. Finally, he Then place the cavalry on the left and right wings.
As soon as the battle started, the Roman infantry quickly rushed towards the weakened Chinese army position and plunged into the vacuum zone in the center of the Carthage formation. At the same time, Carthage's elite troops on the flanks firmly held the battle line. This meant that as the Romans advanced, the Carthaginian line evolved into a crescent shape, thus revealing the trap, and the Romans were surrounded on three sides. To make matters worse, after the Carthaginian cavalry defeated the Roman cavalry , they rushed over from behind the enemy. The Romans had no retreat at this point, and a bloody massacre ensued. Cannae was the greatest military defeat in Roman history. An estimated 70,000 Roman soldiers were killed, plus 10,000 captured. 29 senior commanders and 80 senators also died on the battlefield at the same time, including the Roman consul Paulus.
With the annihilation of the Roman army, it seemed that the city of Rome was at the mercy of Hannibal.However, this famous Carthaginian general allowed his exhausted troops to rest temporarily, giving the Romans a breathing space to regroup. This matter is one of the great mysteries in history. This ceasefire puzzled even Hannibal's own subordinates. One of them is said to have commented: "The gods do not bestow all their gifts on one man. Hannibal, Hannibal, you know how to win." "Winning victory, but not knowing how to make good use of it." In fact, the reason why Hannibal did not directly attack the enemy was simply to follow the laws of war of his time. Hannibal's main goal was not to completely eliminate his enemies, but to force them to come to the negotiating table. After the Battle of Cannae, Hannibal probably concluded that he had achieved his goal. Although the later stories about Hannibal are highly dramatic - he is said to have sworn as a child to be an eternal enemy of Rome - he was actually a very pragmatic man. Hannibal wanted to reduce Rome to a mere power in central Italy, while the remaining Italian cities were to be liberated. In addition, Sardinia and the original Carthaginian part of Sicily should also return to the embrace of Carthage. However, if Hannibal thought the war was over, he was sadly mistaken. As we have seen before, Rome was a country without brake valves. For Rome, the Italian peninsula was not just a conquered territory to bargain with. It would take considerable courage for a politician to advocate compromise with the enemy or withdrawal from hard-won Italian territory. The group of senators that Hannibal faced had been influenced by the deeds of their ancestors since childhood. Those ancestors had stubbornly refused to negotiate with the enemy and would persevere even in the most difficult and difficult situations.
So Rome tried every means to recruit new troops, and the war continued. They knew that it would be absurd and foolish to challenge the great general on the open battlefield. The shrewd and practical Romans chose to avoid direct contact with the opponent. As the Carthaginian army moved back and forth across Italy, the Roman army followed quietly and attacked from behind. At the same time, Rome also sent troops to Spain and eventually North Africa to put pressure on Carthage. This strategy worked, and Hannibal, who was increasingly embarrassed, was recalled to the country by Carthage in 203 BC to defend the homeland. However, he was completely defeated at the Battle of Zama in 201 BC by a younger but highly qualified Roman general named Scipio Africanus. The Carthaginians had no choice but to sue for peace again.
After experiencing such a protracted and life-destroying conflict, its peace conditions are very harsh. Carthage had to pay 10,000 talents (equivalent to 26,000 kilograms) of silver over 50 years, which was nearly 10 times the amount demanded by Rome at the end of the First Punic War. Furthermore, Carthage could not wage any war without Rome's permission. In other words, Carthage was almost reduced to a vassal state of Rome. However, for the next 30 years, Rome left Carthage to its own devices as they were busy in the east conquering the Hellenistic kings and winning a series of victories. However, as one of the most massive "settlements" in history, in the 1st century BC, Carthage was once again placed under a new round of control by Rome, despite the fact that they no longer posed a threat to Roman hegemony.
Rome resumed hostilities against Carthage out of considerations from various perspectives. First of all, the wars against the Hellenistic countries left the treasury seriously empty. Although Carthage has long been different from its former self, it has returned to a rich city. Secondly, there was always a residual fear and desire for revenge within Rome. The older generation of Roman senators still remember the time when Hannibal showed off his power in Italy and cast a haze of terror, so they viewed Carthage's revival with great wariness. The biggest advocate of action against Carthage was the senator Cato the Elder.He once visited Carthage as a member of the ambassadorial team. After returning home, this person would clearly shout at the end of every speech "delenda est Carthago!" , that is, "Carthage must be destroyed!" and , who are usually more reserved and serious, even uncharacteristically engaged in stage performance art. During one of his speeches, Cato took out a few ripe figs from his toga and told the audience that these fruits came from Carthage and had just arrived three days ago. In fact, these figs are likely to come from Cato's own manor, but the meaning he wanted to express has been conveyed, that is, Carthage has once again prospered and has become a major threat to Rome.
Carthage indeed staged a stunning economic revival and paid off its huge compensation many years in advance. The Carthaginians were obviously aware that many people in Rome were clamoring to annihilate them, so they built an ingenious circular inner harbor to hide their warships, with a capacity of 170 additional ships. The Roman side put forward a series of unreasonable demands and blatant provocations, thus starting the countdown to Carthage's final destruction. The situation came to a head when the Romans absurdly ordered the Carthaginians to leave their city and find a new home at least 15 kilometers away from the sea. Carthage rejected these conditions, and the entire population began to prepare frantically for war. All public places, including temples, were transformed into crafting workshops. Men and women worked in shifts inside, producing 100 shields, 300 swords, 1,000 throwing objects, 500 darts, and spears every day. In addition, women cut off their own hair to use as string for the throwers.
The Roman siege of Carthage lasted three years, and the city finally fell into the hands of Scipio Emilienus, the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus, in 146 BC. . The Roman legions marched all the way to Mount Bielsa, the administrative and religious center of Carthage, and the massacre here was unprecedented. Scipio hired several special clearing parties to remove the bodies from the streets so that the troops could advance unimpeded. Many buildings were set on fire to drive out the defenders inside. In some places, traces of high temperature scorch are still visible on the ruins. Eventually, 50,000 city residents surrendered and were sold into slavery while the rest were killed. After the fall of the city, much of the city center was burned, and Scipio also ordered the city walls and fortresses to be demolished. When Scipio had gathered all he needed, he handed the city over to his soldiers, who plundered it. Scipio also left a final sentence, cursing anyone who dared to rebuild on the ruins to be punished by God.
Remarkably, Carthage was not the only historic city destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC. In the same year, an uprising broke out in the Greek city of Corinth, which was captured and looted by a Roman army and then completely destroyed. The Romans once claimed that they were extremely cruel and unreasonable to Carthage because they were particularly afraid of that city. However, similar experiences in Corinth exposed the Romans' lies. What happened in Corinth also strongly proved that there was more to the destruction of Carthage than simple armed aggression. First of all, looting the two most prosperous port cities in the ancient Mediterranean was a very profitable business. The wealth of both places was plundered and their works of art shipped back to Rome. A large amount of Carthaginian territory was confiscated and became public land owned by the Roman state. In addition, many slaves were auctioned off, all of which caused a large amount of public and private wealth to flow into the Roman treasury. These two powerful cities have a long history, and the ugly act of destruction sent a clear message: defying the will of Rome will never be tolerated, and the glory of the past is not worth mentioning in the new world. The ruins of Carthage and Corinth stand as blood-stained monuments, reminders of the cost of resistance to Rome. They were also an apocalyptic sign of the times, symbolizing Rome's emergence as the new world power.
