The "Sino-British Renewal of the Yunnan-Myanmar Border Commercial Treaty" was a very important treaty negotiated between the Qing court and Britain during the Guangxu period regarding the Yunnan-Myanmar border. It is also an indispensable source material for studying the changes in the Yunnan-Myanmar border. During the Guangxu period, Xue Fucheng's Yunnan-Myanmar border negotiations were considered to be one of the few successful examples of the Qing court's foreign negotiations.
1. Foreword
The "Sino-British Renewal of the Yunnan-Burma Border Commercial Treaty" in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei is a very important treaty negotiated between the Qing court and the United Kingdom on the border between Yunnan and Burma during the Guangxu period. It is also an important treaty for the study of the Yunnan-Burma border. An indispensable source material for border changes. At that time, Xue Fucheng, the negotiator of the Qing court, took on the important task of negotiating the Yunnan-Myanmar border with the British. He forced the British to make concessions through negotiations. With the signing of the "Sino-British Renewal of the Yunnan-Myanmar Border Commercial Treaty", the Qing government was able to take back some of the territory that had long been occupied by the British. land and Xue Fucheng's Yunnan-Myanmar border negotiations are considered to be one of the few successful examples of the Qing court's foreign negotiations. This article intends to use the treaties stored in the "Forbidden City" in Taipei, as well as relevant original treaty files such as the "Prime Minister's Office of National Affairs-Myanmar Files" stored in the " Central Research Institute " to explain Xue Fucheng's negotiations on the Yunnan-Myanmar border. And give some introduction to the treaty map. In addition, before Xue Fucheng negotiated with the British, the Qing court sent Zeng Jize to negotiate with the British. There are records that Zeng Jize mistook the Lujiang ( Nujiang ) for the Great Jinsha River ( the Irrawaddy River ). Did Zeng Jize misidentify it? , and plans to provide explanations with relevant files.
2. The reasons for the Yunnan-Myanmar border negotiations
After the mid-Qing Dynasty , China-Myanmar relations underwent major changes, mainly due to the entry of British forces into Myanmar. Britain controlled India in the 18th century, and Myanmar sent troops into Assam, India, in the 21st year of Jiaqing (1816), and asked Britain to hand over the Arakan region to Myanmar. The British severely refused, and relations between the two countries became tense. The conflict between Britain and Myanmar has already Unavoidable. In the sixth year of Daoguang (1824), the British sent troops to attack Burma. This was the first Anglo-Burmese War . The Burmese army retreated steadily, and Yangon was captured by the British army. The king of Burma sued for peace and signed a peace treaty with the United Kingdom, paying indemnity and ceding territory to the United Kingdom.
During the 3rd year of Daoguang , Meng Keng, the younger brother of King Meng Ji of Burma, advocated the exclusion of the British, but also caused disputes over business issues. The British launched the second Anglo-Burmese War in the 2nd year of Xianfeng (1852). The Burmese army was defeated again, and there was internal strife in the Burmese court. At that time, King Baigan of Burma was deposed, and his younger brother Meng Dun established himself as king. In the first year of Tongzhi (1862), Meng Dun signed a peace treaty with the United Kingdom and ceded Lower Burma (the land south of 19 degrees 30 minutes north latitude) to the United Kingdom. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1878), King Meng Dun of Burma died. Internal strife within the Burmese court resumed, and the Burmese court also planned to join forces with France to fight against the British. In addition, there was a dispute with the forestry company established by the British businessman in Bombay. The Burmese government ordered it to suspend operations and fined it, which made the British very aware. Unhappy, determined to destroy Burma. In the eleventh year of Guangxu (1885), Britain launched the third Anglo-Burmese War. On November 27 of the same year, Britain announced the annexation of Upper Burma and appointed officials to rule it from the British Governor in India. Burma was now completely under British control.
When the British army captured Upper Burma, the Sino-French-Vietnam War (i.e. Sino-French War) had not yet completely ended. Burma was a vassal of the Qing Dynasty, and the Qing Dynasty should be responsible for its rise and fall, but due to the conflict with the French The war was not over, and the Qing government was unwilling to start another quarrel with Britain over the Burmese affairs, so it immediately called Zeng Jize, the envoy to the United Kingdom, to negotiate with the British Foreign Minister about the Burmese affairs. Zeng Jize declared to the United Kingdom that Myanmar was a vassal state of the Qing Dynasty, and submitted the gold seal pattern of the King of Myanmar given to him in the 55th year of Qianlong's reign (1790) to the British Foreign Minister for review, as proof that Myanmar was a vassal state. After Zeng Jize's efforts, the British foreign ministers agreed to establish a new king of Myanmar. Myanmar continued to pay tribute to China. Myanmar's government affairs were managed by the British, and the British discussed border affairs and commercial issues with the Qing court. In addition, Britain also agreed to allocate the land east of the Lu River (i.e. Salween River ) to China, and the Qing government could establish a commercial port in the area. Originally, Zeng Jize planned to reach an agreement with the United Kingdom on the above-mentioned relevant negotiation conditions, but due to the resignation of the British cabinet, the negotiations came to a standstill.
After the new British cabinet took office, Zeng Jize negotiated with the British Foreign Office again. However, the new foreign minister reversed the previous agreement and refused to recognize the land transfer and the establishment of a commercial port. It was also agreed that the new Burmese king would send envoys to pay tribute. The Governor of Burma and the Governor of Yunnan (Yunnan) sent each other gifts, or the Qing Emperor and the British Queen sent envoys to each other for ten years.The Qing court expressed that it could not accept this, and ordered Zeng Jizexu to discuss with the British, saying that "China's most important thing is that in the country of immortality, tribute or no tribute is insignificant." In fact, the main purpose of Britain's destruction of Myanmar was to expand business, absorb Myanmar's resources, and wait for opportunities to expand its power to Yunnan. However, the Qing court recognized the great righteousness of the Spring and Autumn Period and blamed its beginning and end for its righteousness, but the British could not understand it, just like the handle of a chisel cannot be penetrated.
From the 11th year of Guangxu (1885) to February of the 12th year of Guangxu, Zeng Jize negotiated with the British Foreign Office ten times, and the British promised three things: First, every ten years, the Governor of Burma would send personnel to the King of Burma to pay tribute. thing. Second, the land east of the Lujiang River was transferred to China, and the land of Nanzhang and Shan people was also managed by China. Third, Chinese ships must sail the "Great Jinsha River" directly to the sea. However, the Qing court believed that the British did not allow the establishment of another Burmese king, which was contrary to the meaning of continuation of prosperity and destruction, and the importance of each section of the business boundary. In March of the 12th year of Guangxu's reign, Zeng Jize was recalled. The Qing court stated that it would Zeng Jize will make a decision after detailed discussions. As for the Myanmar agreement, Zeng Jize and the British Foreign Office only signed an abbreviated record of the agreement. The author consulted the "Prime Minister's Office of Foreign Affairs - Burma File", which contains nearly a hundred pages of records of Zeng Jize's report to the Qing court on his negotiations with the British Foreign Secretary. The content of the discussions was very detailed, and it can be said that he worked hard. However, because the Qing court was eager to recall Zeng Jize, Zeng Jize failed to sign a treaty with the British Foreign Minister. It was not until June of the twelfth year of Guangxu that the "Sino-British Burma Clause" was signed between the Prime Minister's National Affairs Office Prince Yi Kuang and the British Minister in Beijing Nicholas Roderick O'Conor (this treaty is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei ), the third paragraph of which stipulates that the China-Myanmar border shall be jointly demarcated by personnel from both countries. This is the reason why the Qing court and the British later demarcated the Yunnan-Myanmar border.
3. Sino-British Renewal of the Yunnan-Burma Boundary Commercial Treaty and the Yunnan-Burma Boundary Map
As mentioned above, in the 12th year of Guangxu’s reign, the Qing court and the British signed the “Sino-British Burma Clause”, in which the third paragraph of the treaty only mentioned China and Britain. It was only necessary to send personnel to jointly survey the border between Yunnan and Burma, but there was no mention in the treaty of how to divide the border between Yunnan and Burma. Britain took advantage of the situation and continued to expand its influence to the Yunnan border of China. In order to safeguard national sovereignty, Xue Fu proposed to the Qing government to proactively negotiate with Britain on the Yunnan-Myanmar border affairs, business and other issues, and recommended himself as a negotiator. The "Sino-British Renewal of the Yunnan-Burma Border Commercial Treaty" was signed on January 24, the 20th year of Guangxu's reign (March 1, 1894). Xue Fucheng forced Britain to make appropriate concessions through negotiations, and China was able to take back some of the actual encroachment on the area. This is considered one of the few successful examples in the Qing court's foreign negotiations. There are 20 articles in the treaty. Articles 1 to 5 are about the demarcation of the boundaries between Yunnan and Myanmar. This treaty is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei.
This contract includes: Chinese and English signed version, exchange contract English version, signed by the Queen of England, and Chinese copy of the original contract. The most amazing thing is that the cover of the signed copy in Chinese and English is red, with a circular gilded dragon flag pattern of the national emblem of the Qing Dynasty printed on it, and "大清一" written around the circular dragon flag pattern. The four words "unification" are quite exquisite, and this pattern is also found on the back cover of this treaty. This is also the only treaty with this dragon flag pattern printed on it among the nearly 173 Qing Dynasty treaties and agreements collected by the National Palace Museum in Taipei. The last pages of the Chinese and English versions of the covenant are signed by Xue Fucheng in English and stamped with customs seals. The British Foreign Secretary Rosebery also signed the covenant and was stamped with a wax seal. Xue Fucheng did not sign in Chinese but in English. The author found that in addition to Xue Fucheng, the other official in the Qing Dynasty who signed the official treaty and boundary map in English was Zeng Jize.
In February of the 20th year of Guangxu, Xue Fucheng reported that on January 24, he and British Foreign Minister Lawsbury signed each other's seals on the treaty volume, and sent two copies of the treaty volume and the Yunnan-Burma boundary map ( Both sides also drew a seal on the picture and sent it back to the court. As mentioned above, the official treaty is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, but the Yunnan-Burma boundary map was not stored with the treaty at that time and is no longer seen. It may have been lost during the wars in the late Qing Dynasty, which is a pity.In the second volume of "Modern Border History of China" edited by scholar Lu Yiran and published by Sichuan People's Publishing House in 2013, the author found that there was a map called "Yunnan-Burma Boundary Map" attached to the book. According to the explanatory text on the upper right of the map : This map was redrawn based on the official boundary map of Yunnan and Burma signed by China and Britain in the 20th year of Guangxu's reign when Mr. Yin Mingde participated in the Yunnan-Burma Boundary Research Committee in the 18th year of the Republic of China. However, the lower right corner of this map also states that this map is a reference to the map attached to "Yunnan Diplomatic Issues" (Business Edition) written by Mr. Zhang Fengqi. Because the original map of the Yunnan-Burma demarcation is no longer available, this map is currently the only map that can be compared with the text of the Yunnan-Burma demarcation treaty, which is very rare. In particular, the topography of the Yunnan-Myanmar border is complex. To understand the negotiations between the Qing court and the British on this section of the border at that time, and how the border was divided, it would be difficult to get a full picture without this map.
According to the provisions of Articles 1 to 4 of the original treaty, the boundary line is divided into four sections. However, because the article is very lengthy and complicated, it is planned to use the boundary line drawn on this map for a brief explanation. The first section of the boundary line starts from Jiangao Mountain (located below the watershed of the Enmeikai River on the map) and goes southwest to Saboping, then south to Nagmenping, then south to the Lesai River, and then continues The first section of the boundary line extends from Yangjiang River and Nanbenjiang River to Taiping River. The east side of the boundary line belongs to China and the left side belongs to Myanmar. The second section starts from the Gelong River (Kunong River) below the Taiping River, passes through the Nantaibai River (Xipa River) (Tiebikuan in the picture returns to China), then to the Mengdingge River, Nanwan River, and then to the Nanmo River, Ruilijiang (Manxiu, Tianmaguan, Xinlong and other places on the picture belong to China). The third section starts from Mengmao in the picture and goes southeast towards Maliba, passing through Banglai, Benlong and finally Lujiang. Then follow the Lujiang River to Gonglong (the map shows Gonglong and Gonglong crossing to the United Kingdom, and Keqian returning to China). The boundary line then goes southeast from Gonglong to the Nanka River, and then follows the Nanka River first to the south and then to the east. Go to Nanlei River and then to Meijiang River. According to Article 4 of the treaty, no boundary line will be drawn for the time being in the area north of Jiangao Mountain, that is, the area north of 25 degrees 35 minutes north latitude, that is, the fourth section of the border.
4. Xue Fucheng’s petition to negotiate with Britain as soon as possible
It is mentioned in the book "China-Myanmar Border Affairs" edited by Liu Bokui that when Zeng Jize was discussing with the British Foreign Minister, he mentioned that Britain could occupy Myanmar, but it could not invade Chinese land. , the British side asked about the location of the border between China and Myanmar, but Zeng Jize "was not prepared for the moment, and did not know where our border was, so he hastily replied that there are Chinese troops and Chinese flags on our border. The British government attaches great importance to this sentence He immediately telegraphed his officials in Myanmar to stop and not to enter without permission if they see Chinese soldiers and Chinese flags.” Zeng Jize also informed the Qing court of this matter. However, the British army took advantage of the opportunity before the two countries sent personnel to survey the border and advanced north to Bama (recruitment). However, they still did not see the Qing court patrol troops, so they headed north again. The British army stopped advancing when they first encountered the Qing army at the Hongbang River. Liu Bokui said in the book that the British army advanced northwards as if they were entering uninhabited territory and did not stop until they reached Bhamo. This was all because the border officials sent by the Qing government at that time had different opinions and the Qing border troops were not aware of the British invasion. The army has entered Bhamo (Bamo) (according to the map of the Yunnan-Myanmar boundary, Bamo is located on the right side of the confluence of the Dajinsha River and Murray River), and even reached the Hongbang River (Nanben River), making the British think that Bhamo ( This was the Qing government's biggest mistake.
In addition, China and Britain signed a treaty and agreed that the two countries would send personnel to survey the border between Yunnan and Myanmar. However, the attitude of the Qing government at that time was not positive and it had not yet sent personnel to survey the border with the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom also took this time to send troops to Northern Myanmar has occupied areas inhabited by local ethnic minorities and is waiting for an opportunity to enter Yunnan. In February of the 13th year of Guangxu's reign (1887), Yunnan-Guizhou Governor Cen Yuying reported that the British troops stationed in the southern state had captured Dien Bien Phu among the ten states, and built a railway there to approach Yuanjiang, Thalang and Pu'er in Yunnan. The border areas between various prefectures and prefectures have caused panic among local ethnic minorities. Cen Yuying said that the British army intended to spy on the five major tea mountains and Gejiu Tin Factory in Yunnan, and that although the border area was demarcated according to the map, in fact, due to the unrest in the border area due to banditry, they were unable to set up border markers because the border location was not clear. , there is no guarantee that trouble will not occur. Cen Yuying asked the Prime Minister's National Affairs Office to inform the British Minister to restrain the country's troops from intruding on the border.The Prime Minister's Office immediately sent a note to the then British Minister in Beijing, Walsham John, who responded by denying that British troops were harassing the border. Liu Ruifen, who succeeded Zeng Jize as the British-Russian Imperial Envoy, did not actively urge the British to send personnel to jointly conduct surveys on the Yunnan-Myanmar border survey, allowing the British to take advantage of this gap to send troops to occupy more Chinese territory. It was not until March of the 16th year of Guangxu (1890) that Xue Fucheng was sent as envoys to Britain, France, Belgium, Italy and other countries, and the situation changed slightly.
In March of the 17th year of Guangxu (1891), Xue Fucheng stated in a memorial that active preparations should be made for negotiations with the British on the demarcation of trade between Myanmar and Myanmar, and the British should not be allowed to take the lead, otherwise the demarcation of Yunnan and Myanmar would be very difficult in the future. Xue Fucheng first explained Zeng Jize's discussions with the United Kingdom on Myanmar-related matters and put forward his views. Xue Fucheng said that at that time, Zeng Jize negotiated with the British Foreign Office and proposed to establish a monarch for Myanmar and pay tribute to China every ten years. However, the British did not agree. Later, it was agreed that the British ambassador to Myanmar would send envoys to Myanmar on a regular basis. China will perform ceremonial duties as a gift, while the border affairs and commerce between Yunnan and Burma are proposed to be demarcated before discussing trade issues.
Regarding the issue of demarcation, Xue Fucheng said that Britain has gained a lot from controlling the entire territory of Myanmar, so when it comes to demarcating the border, it seems that there is a theory of "allowing China to expand the border a little bit." Clay, an official from the British Foreign Office, once expressed to Zeng Jize that the country is willing to transfer "the land east of the Lu River, starting from outside the southern boundary of Yunnan to the south to the northern boundary of Siam on the west bank of the Lu River (Salween River) and east Arrive at the lower reaches of the Lancang River. Among them, there are Nanzhang in the north and Shan people in the south. They may be kept as vassal states or taken over as vassals, depending on China's convenience." Zeng Jize believes that if the east of the Lujiang River is returned to me, the land of Nanzhang and the Shan people will be retained as vassal states, and they will be required to pay tribute on time. In addition, Zeng Jize asked the British for the Bafou Land (i.e., the new street of Manfou), which is hundreds of miles away from Tengyue, east of the upper reaches of the "Great Jinsha River", north of the lower reaches of the Longchuan River , and south of the lower reaches of the Binlang River. , was a major trading town in Yunnan and Burma. However, the British were unwilling to add this place to China and planned to cede the old Balu City about 20 to 30 miles east of Balu to China. In addition, the "Great Jinsha River" will be regarded as a public river. Zeng Jize signed an abbreviation with the British government, but was ordered to return to the country without negotiating an agreement. Later Prince Qing Yi Kuang signed the "Sino-British Burmese Articles" with the British Minister Ogner in Beijing, agreeing that both parties would send personnel to survey the Yunnan-Burma border. It has been five years since the crossing, but the British side has not urged it to be done, and the court has ignored it for the time being. .
Xue Fucheng said that according to the information he had obtained, Britain and Siam were currently surveying and establishing border affairs, and secretly sent agents to the Yunnan-Myanmar border to inspect and explore mineral deposits, with the intention of building a railway to connect the border. Xue Fucheng believed that if the British "arrange the compromise, they will turn to the excuse that it has been delayed for a long time, and they will rush each other, and the situation will be forced to allow it to be launched suddenly. Then they will be calm and I will be in a hurry, they will be experienced and I will be in trouble, and they will have already paid careful attention to their measures." But I am at a loss as to whether I can advance or retreat, and I am temporarily exhausted, and my calculations have not yet been carried out, so there is no reason why I will not be able to recover my losses." Xue Fucheng said that if the demarcation matter cannot be investigated in detail, the key points cannot be obtained. As for the general trend of the priorities for the demarcation of Yunnan and Burma, the first thing that should be discussed is the land east of the Lujiang River that the British said they were willing to give up. This land is nearly a thousand miles long from north to south and wide. There are five to six hundred miles away. If Nanzhang and the Shan people can really be taken into vassal state or listed as the land of Outuo, it will be a good strategy to protect the Sui border. According to Xue Fucheng's research, Nanzhang is Laos and has belonged to Siam. If this land cannot be taken back, it will be just a false favor given by the British to China. In the end, if it cannot keep its land, it may be laughed at by outsiders. Xue Fucheng said that Nanzhang and the Shan people are both small countries, belonging to Myanmar and Siam. However, the land of the Shan people is larger than that of Nanzhang, they are somewhat self-reliant, and they have always submitted to China. If they are adopted as our vassal, the lands on the borders of Shunning and Pu'er will be included. Can be consolidated. As for the Bafou Land, Britain promised to transfer the old site of Bafou to China. From here, it can lead to the "Great Jinsha River". However, whether it can be won in the future, Xue Fucheng said that there are five points to consider. Xue Fucheng listed these five considerations in this memorial:
During the Qianlong period, Burma relied on strength and was not peaceful, and swallowed up the chieftains on the Yunnan border. Beyond the eight passes, the situation was incomplete. There were many unclear boundaries in the southwest corner. If I did not seek to expand If you go out, the other party may dig in, just think about it. If I don't leave any room outside the border, they will build a railway directly to the Yunnan border. If something happens, I will be threatened at all times, so I have to worry about it.The uppermost source of the Xiaojinsha River flows from Tibet into Yunnan, and is very close to the border. The foreign map calls it the Yangtze River ... If they still stay in the old territory, they will have a glimpse of the source of the river, or they may sail into the Yangtze River in order to negotiate for trade. Benefit, three considerations. If I set up a customs there and collect taxes, I can prosper with it. If I don't expand the border, I will trade in the Yunnan territory. If I come to the other side, I will choose a concession and set up a consular place. All matters cannot be left unchecked, and there are four considerations. If we gain the benefit of the Jinsha River, the copper along the western route can be carried northward by ship, and the freight should be doubled. Otherwise, if they only use the benefit of transportation to get a glimpse of the mineral wealth in Yunnan, they may have a cunning plan. Think about it.
The five considerations mentioned by Xue Fucheng further show the importance of the geographical location of the Bafou area. Xue Fucheng pointed out that if China could not obtain this place, the United Kingdom could unscrupulously enter the mainland to obtain minerals or expand business and expand its power. Xue Fucheng believed that the British government had deliberately delayed the dispatch of personnel to demarcate the border in recent years because it wanted to wait for China to forget about the matter and then urge the demarcation of the border after a while, or even if necessary, transfer the matter that Zeng Jize had discussed with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of that country. Abridged and ignored. Xue Fucheng said: "The way to build a country is not to be unprepared by the enemy. China has a reputation for being industrious and far-sighted. Countries abroad know this, so they wait for opportunities and multiply each other. Ryukyu will be destroyed, and Vietnam will follow. As a result, Vietnam declined and Myanmar followed suit." Therefore, Xue Fucheng believed that the Qing government should proactively negotiate with the British to demarcate the border. If they stood in a stalemate with the British, they might be able to slightly expand the boundary affairs and let other countries know that China was very active in handling this matter. This was very different from the slow situation in the past. It could "defeat the enemy's plans and reap the consequences." ". Xue Fucheng asked the imperial court to allow him to discuss the demarcation schedule and demarcation methods with the British outside world. Xue Fucheng also drew a map of the Yunnan-Myanmar border and a complete map of the Nanzhang and Shan territories and submitted them to the imperial court for inspection.
5. Zeng Jize mistook the Lujiang River for the Great Jinsha River issue
Regarding the report by Xue Fucheng on the demarcation of trade between Yunnan and Myanmar, the Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs stated that Xue Fucheng reported that the United Kingdom has repeatedly sent agents to the border of Yunnan and Myanmar to check the situation. It should be Preparations were made for the future demarcation of the border between the two countries, but the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office believed that "he did not ask, and I could not start it." The Prime Minister's International Affairs Office stated that the current situation in the border areas of Yunnan Province has not been recorded on existing Chinese maps. If it is not investigated and clarified first, there will be no basis for future boundary discussions. Therefore, it is recommended that the imperial court order the Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou Wang Wenshao to send personnel to the border areas. We visited the area to find out what was the land of the chieftains, what was the land of Outuo, what was the land of the savages, and the names of the mountains, rivers, winds, and lands, and they were drawn and explained one by one. They were sent to the Prime Minister's National Affairs Office for review and approval, and then they were processed. As for Xue Fucheng's request to negotiate with the British Foreign Office first, the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office thought it would be better not to discuss it for the time being. Emperor Guangxu wrote this memorial to Zhu Zhu: "I approve this." That is to say, they agree with what the Prime Minister's National Affairs Office said in the memorial, and are not in a hurry to discuss the Yunnan-Burma demarcation issue with the British. They will wait until they send personnel to find out the border situation and draw and post it as a basis for future negotiations with the British. Xue Fucheng requested to negotiate with the British Foreign Office and postponed the matter for the time being. In addition, the Military Aircraft Department also gave a copy of the Yunnan-Myanmar border map submitted by Xue Fucheng to Wang Wenshao for reference. However, this map drawn by Xue Fucheng himself has no longer been seen, or it may have been lost due to the subsequent war.
Regarding the abbreviation made by Zeng Jize and the British Foreign Office that the east of Lujiang River was returned to China, the Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs stated that after investigation:
Yunnan Province Yongchang, Shunning, Pu'er and other prefectures along the border, from southwest to east, there are eight passes, nine passes and ten The chieftains are in conflict with each other, and they use the barbarian side as a shortcut to enter Burma. The Jiangsuo and Territory Offices of Tengyue Longling and the chieftains are actually far to the west of the Nujiang River. Zeng Jize sent an external question and answer mistakenly thinking that the Nujiang River is the Lujiang River. The Jingchen Yamen (the Prime Minister's Government Affairs Yamen) repeatedly called Zeng Jize, saying that the east of the Lujiang River was originally the border of Yunnan, and he was not confused by the British for false benefits, but was deceived.
In this memorial, the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office said that Zeng Jize mistakenly identified the Nu River as the Lu River. This record is surprising, because the Lu River is the Nu River, and the river flowing into Myanmar is called the Salween River. Zeng Jize did not misidentify it. Above this text record, the author found the words "Nujiang is Lujiang" written with a brush. These words should have been written by someone who later reviewed this file. However, the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office, which is in charge of foreign affairs, does not know that the Nu River is the Lu River, and even claims that Zeng Jize made a mistake. This is really incomprehensible.Not only that, in the second half of this memorial, the Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs mentioned: In the 34th year of Qianlong's reign (1769), the army conquered Burma, with Xinjie as an important town, and its west was pillowed by the Jinsha River, also known as the Nu River, and Xitu ( (Western map) is called the Irrawaddy River, which is the closest to Tongbi and other passes on the border of Tengyue. In the text of this memorial, the Great Jinsha River is also called the Nu River. After the Great Jinsha River flows into Myanmar, it is called the Irrawaddy River. The Great Jinsha River and the Nu River are two different rivers. The same file of the Prime Minister’s National Affairs Office actually contains two documents. The records are inconsistent and really confusing.
Whether Zeng Jize mistakenly regarded the Nu River as the Great Jinsha River? Volume 63 of "Qing Dynasty Diplomatic Historical Materials" contains two telegrams. The first telegram was sent by Zeng Jize to the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office. The telegram said, "Ze Qian strives for the Eighth Route Army to raise funds for the North." The boundary is the Daying River... The western boundary is the Nu River, which is the upper reaches of the Elevated River, and the northern boundary is still the east of the Nu River as our territory. Although not all of these layers are allowed." Based on the contents of this cable, it seems that Zeng Jize mistakenly identified the Nu River as the Irrawaddy River. The second telegram was sent to Zeng Jize by the Prime Minister’s Office for International Affairs. The telegram stated: “The previous telegraph was connected to the Lujiang River to reach the Nu River. After checking the map, the lower reaches of the Nu River are the Lujiang River. In fact, Yongchang is west to the east, but the Ilwady River is in the east. Tengyue New Street and Awa both rely on this river. The caller seems to have mistook the Ilwady River for the Nu River. This section is the most critical... If the east and west of the Nu River were originally the boundaries of China, if the east of the Nu River is mistakenly disputed, the west Teng Yue turned and was placed outside the boundary." According to the contents of these two cables, Zeng Jize seemed to have misidentified the Nu River as the Irrawaddy River when discussing border issues with the British Foreign Office. Therefore, some scholars quoted these two cables and claimed that Zeng Jize did not understand the mountain and river situation on the Yunnan-Myanmar border and misidentified it. The Nu River is the Irrawaddy River.
Based on the above-mentioned files and cable records, it is really difficult to determine whether the Prime Minister’s National Affairs Office made a mistake or whether Zeng Jize made a mistake. At that time, Zeng Jize and the British negotiated to transfer the land east of the Lujiang River to China. When this news was sent back to the imperial court, Yunnan Governor Zhang Kaisong stated in February of the twelfth year of Guangxu (1886): "The land east of the Lujiang River will be returned to China. He was surprised, because if the land east of Edom belonged to China, all the land west of Lujiang would belong to Britain. Zhang Kaisong said that he carefully studied the maps and public opinion and found that Lujiang was in the interior, 120 meters southwest of Yongchang Prefecture. Ten miles from Jiangxi to Tengyue Hall, 300 miles from Tengyue to Manyun on the border of Yunnan... and 200 miles from Longling to Mengding Tusi on the border. In the area southwest of Lujiang, the British negotiated with Zeng Jize to return the east of Lujiang to us, but actually considered the land hundreds of miles west of Lujiang to be Burmese territory. Zeng Jize was overseas and was not familiar with the situation. Chen Dal'er, if it goes as planned, I will be invaded and all the dangerous passes will be lost. The two halls of Teng Yue Longling and the ten chieftains under my jurisdiction will be reduced to foreign lands." Emperor Guangxu wrote a memorial here: There are many Yunnan territories to the west of Lujiang River, and they have been clearly discussed with Zeng Jize through detailed examination of maps by the Prime Minister's National Affairs Office.
Zhang Kaisong criticized Zeng Jize in this memorial for agreeing to the British demarcation line without raising any objection when the British Foreign Office proposed Lujiang as the demarcation line. If the imperial court does not investigate and follows this demarcation method, the land, chieftains, and passes that originally belonged to China west of the Lujiang River will fall into British hands.
The author checked the excerpts of the talks between Zeng Jize and the British Foreign Affairs Office in the Prime Minister's Office. One paragraph recorded Zeng Jize's discussion with the British foreign official Clay. Clay said, "The land east of the Lujiang River starts from outside the boundary of Yunnan. It reaches the northern boundary of Siam in the south, is bordered by the Lujiang River (the Salween River) in the west, and reaches the Mekong River in the east." From the contents of the archives, it can be seen that Zeng Jize understood that the Lujiang River was the Salween River, not the Great Jinsha River (Irrawaddy River). However, another page records Zeng Jize’s conversation. This paragraph reads: “The place that my minister is arguing about is Suo Bahou... This place is to the west of the border of Yunnan, the Nu River is to the east of the upper reaches of the Elevati River, and the Longchuan River To the north of the downstream, Dayingjiang is to the south of the lower reaches of Yunlong River. The situation here is based on the upper reaches of Nujiang River, and it can be an important town." This paragraph of text description also regards the Nu River as the Earlwati River. According to this paragraph of record, Zeng Jize seems to have mistakenly identified it.
However, in the later part of this file, it records the meeting between Zeng Jize sent Magli and the British diplomat Clay on the 23rd of the first month of 1886. It is written: "The matter of the Magriyun border is the intention of the Prime Minister's Yamen Starting from the confluence of the Elevati River and the Ruili River and ending at the origin of the Elevati River, it is the junction of the savage lands under the jurisdiction of the two countries. If the boundary is drawn in this way, Bali (New Street) belongs to China. "This file also contains a paragraph at the back that says "Lujiang, that is, the Shan areas east of the Salween River, are now owned by the British. If China wants to exercise its ownership rights over these places, the British court is also willing to agree." Based on these two records of Sino-British talks, when Zeng Jize submitted this record of talks titled "British-Burmese Matters" to the court, he should have checked the contents in advance. The author believes that Zeng Jize was negotiating with Russia on the boundary of the Ili section of Xinjiang. He carefully surveyed and studied the border terrain in advance, and successfully recovered Ili and part of the lost land, which was appreciated by the Qing court. Therefore, it is impossible for Zeng Jize to regard the Lujiang (Nujiang) River as the Irrawaddy River, and at that time, the British proposed that the land east of the Lujiang River belong to China. As mentioned above, Yunnan Governor Zhang Kaisong opposed such a division, and the imperial court also knew that the east of the Lujiang River was The land allocated should belong to Yunnan, so Zeng Jize should strive for it during negotiations. In addition to paying tribute to Myanmar, Zeng Jize's negotiations with the British aimed to make the Great Jinsha River (Irrawaddy River) a public river and establish a commercial port on the upper reaches of the river. Therefore, it is impossible to mistake the Irrawaddy River for the Lu River.
copied the notes exchanged between Zeng Jize and the British Foreign Minister Salisbury on May 20, the twelfth year of Guangxu. It mentioned that Salisbury said: "China and North Korea are east of the Lujiang River. Any place now owned by the British can exercise its ownership rights. In this case, the eastern boundary of Burma will be determined by the Lu River. If there is any other boundary that needs to be negotiated, it will only be the boundary from the Elawati River to Yunnan. The British court has agreed to do so. The demarcation of the border must be based on smooth trade. Therefore, China and North Korea plan to start from the upper reaches of the Shweli River at the junction of Yunnan and Myanmar, and follow the lower reaches of the Shweli River to the Elevati River, which should be the boundary between the two countries... The opinions of China and North Korea still hope that the British court will agree to handle it this way. This is the most appropriate method, with the Ruili River as the junction (according to the Yunnan-Burma boundary map, this river is located south of Tianma Pass)... A glance at the map shows that this method is the most appropriate. Get the Dharma”.
From this text record, it can be seen that when Zeng Jize was negotiating with the British Foreign Office, he did not mistake Lujiang for the Great Jinsha River. At the end of this file, there is also a correspondence from the British outside at that time, mentioning Zeng Jize's request to urge Burma to send envoys and pay tribute, and to transfer the east bank of the Elevati River to the confluence of the Shweli River to China. This can also prove that Zeng Jize did not make a mistake. From this archive record, it can be seen that Zeng Jize also used maps as a reference when negotiating with the British. The Great Jinsha River was in the west and the Nu River (Lujiang) was in the east. The two rivers were very far apart. It would be really incredible if Zeng Jize had mistakenly identified them.
Therefore, it is difficult to ascertain whether the confusion in the names of the two rivers in the files was caused by officials at the time who were not familiar with the situation on the Yunnan-Myanmar border and recorded errors, or whether Zeng Jize and the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office were negligent and did not conduct detailed investigations and corrections. As for some scholars who have seen the diplomatic historical materials of the Qing Dynasty or their published books, but have not seen the original records of the Prime Minister's Office of Foreign Affairs, as well as the meeting minutes of Zeng Jize's negotiations with the British Foreign Office contained in this file, they say that Zeng Jize made a mistake. The Lujiang River is the Irrawaddy River. I think this statement is not accurate. I think it was a clerical error by Zeng Jize, who mistakenly wrote the Nujiang River as the Great Jinsha River. However, this issue is worthy of study and discussion.
This paragraph is about whether Zeng Jize mistakenly recognized the Nu River as the Great Jinsha River. The author found this inconsistent record when checking the "Prime Minister's Office Files". Although it has nothing to do with Xue Fucheng's boundary negotiations, it is Matters related to whether Zeng Jize, the court minister at the time, made mistakes are worth mentioning in the article for reference.
6. Xue Fucheng was sent to negotiate with the British external circles
Since the Qing court had not actively negotiated with the British on the border demarcation matter, Xue Fucheng's request to negotiate with the British as soon as possible was rejected by the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office, and he was given In May of the seventeenth year of Guangxu's reign (1891), Britain had the opportunity to invade the mainland of Yunnan. In May, the British sent troops into the Menglian and Jianghong areas. They were discovered by the Qing Dynasty's troops stationed in Tengyue and only then attracted the attention of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing Dynasty ordered Xue Fucheng protested to Britain. The British side claimed that it was to identify various places on the border, which areas belong exclusively to China, which areas belong to both China and Myanmar, and which areas belong exclusively to Myanmar. Therefore, personnel were sent to inspect various areas along the border, collect relevant information and report to the outside world as a reference for future border demarcation between the two countries. The British Foreign Ministry also said that "because the Salween River and Mekong River areas are not under British jurisdiction, many places have no system. Without the protection of soldiers, it is impossible to send officials to these places... Without the fierce dragons and rivers and flood canals, it is impossible to Know that these places belong to China." The Qing court asked the British government to order British officials in Myanmar to be careful not to enter China arbitrarily or behave unreasonably.
In addition, the Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou also sent a message to the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office to report that the chieftain along the border in northwest Yunnan reported to him that British soldiers were roaming outside the border, affecting local border security. The Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs immediately asked the British Minister in Beijing at the time, Mr. Walson. On January 15, the 18th year of Guangxu (1892), British Minister Wall issued a note to the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office. After he checked with the country's minister in India, he pointed out that the minister had dispatched two small troops to Savage Hill north of Xinjie. The inspections in Sadona and the banks of Shuili River in the southeast of Xinjie were far away from the border and did not reach Nankan in the east of Savage Mountain. Hual claimed that the Nankan area belonged to Myanmar. In addition, the Madian Savage Mountain area should be decided upon by China and Britain after demarcation of the boundary, and neither side would send troops to occupy it until the boundary was determined.
As for what Hua Shen said, the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office mentioned in an official letter sent to the Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou Wang Wenshao that the British side of Nankan considered it to belong to Myanmar. This view was based on the statement by former governor Cen Yuying that Nankan belonged to Myanmar. Cen Yuying also mentioned in the memorial that the Zhanda area belongs to the Tusi of Tengyue Hall in Yunnan. It is located in the extreme border and borders the Nandian Tusi and Ganya Tusi, and borders the Nankan Tusi of Myanmar on the outside. Since it is said that Nankan is Myanmar, then Nankan belongs to Myanmar and has its own stronghold. The Prime Minister's International Affairs Office asked Wang Wenshao, the governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, to find out whether there was any suspected boundary between the two countries in the old boundary of Yunnan and Myanmar, as a reference for future investigations. After Wang Wenshao received the instruction, he immediately sent relevant personnel to survey the border areas under the jurisdiction of Shuning, Mianning, Simao and Pu'er below Yongchang Prefecture, reaching Lujiang in the west and Siam Nanzhang in the south. The Prime Minister reports to the Yamen on National Affairs.
The Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs also tasked Xue Fucheng to tell the British outside world to urge the country's troops not to cross the border and cause trouble. In April of the 18th year of Guangxu (1892), Xue Fucheng reported that after his investigation, he learned that the British troops had arrived in the northwest region of Tengyue and occupied Satongna (Xidong) in the Savage Mountains. Xue Fucheng said that he would immediately submit a note to the British outside. It is said that the Satona area and the places where the British soldiers went are outside Myanmar and are not under the rule of Myanmar. The land in the upper reaches of the Elawati River is inhabited by savages and has no one to manage it. In the future, it must be determined by China and Britain. When the border broke out, it was under the jurisdiction of the two countries. British troops should now not cause nuisance near the borders of neighboring countries.
However, the British did not stop intruding on the border and sent troops to occupy Xinjie (i.e. Baji) to the Handong area where the chieftains on the Yunnan border belonged. Xue Fucheng then submitted a note of protest to the British outside, demanding that the British troops withdraw from Handong. Xue Fucheng said that the Han Dynasty was between Longchuan and Mengmao and within the Chinese border, so he asked the British troops to withdraw from the area. Xue Fucheng also said that the matter of sending personnel to demarcate the boundary between the two countries should not be delayed any longer. In response to Xue Fucheng's protest and request to send personnel to delimit the border, the British only replied that they would review the matter.
British troops crossed the border into the Savage Mountains, which made the border situation tense. Xue Fucheng had a very positive attitude towards the Yunnan-Myanmar border negotiations. From December of the first year to February of the twelfth year, ten negotiations were held, and all important demarcation matters were discussed and a summary of the negotiations was prepared.Xue Fucheng submitted this abbreviated excerpt to the Prime Minister's National Affairs Office. The summary of Xue Fucheng's report to Zeng Jize and the negotiations with the British external circles is summarized as follows:
China: Starting from the confluence of the Elovati River and the Ruili River to the origin of the Elovati River, it is the junction of the two countries, and The border of the savage territory governed by the state. If the boundary is drawn in this way, Bafou belongs to China and can be a place for trade among various countries. How it will be published and how it will be published will be determined by China and Spain.
The British side: Britain cannot allow the Eighth Route Army to belong to China. The two countries can send border envoys to delineate the boundaries of China and Myanmar. The Shan areas east of the Lu River (Salween River) are now owned by the British. However, China wants to exercise its ownership rights over these areas, and the British are willing to agree.
Chinese side: We can discuss business only by defining the boundaries first.
British side: It is called the land east of the Lujiang River, from outside the southern boundary of Yunnan to the northern boundary of Siam, with the Lujiang River (Salween River) in the west and the Mekong River in the east. There are Nanzhang Kingdom in the north and Shan people in the south. The species will be returned to China, either kept as a vassal state or taken over as a tributary territory, depending on the convenience of China and North Korea.
China: Nanzhang is originally a tribute country. If the British cede the east of Lujiang River to me, it seems appropriate to retain the people of Nanzhang and Shan as vassal states of China, obligating them to pay tribute on time and clearly informing the superior state of their rights. The world.
Zeng Jize said that the focus of the dispute with the British was on the eight points, that is, Xinjie is located to the west of the Yunnan border, to the east of the upper reaches of the Nu River (actually the Elovati River), and to the south of the lower reaches of the Longchuan River. The situation here can be regarded as an important border town. If China gets it, it will be regarded as a trade port and the border defense will be more consolidated. But the UK may not let me.
Xue Fucheng also reported that the British government is preparing to send personnel to China to handle demarcation matters. The long-undiscussed issue of demarcation of the Yunnan-Myanmar border is about to begin. At this time, the Premier's International Affairs Office believed that the negotiation with the British on the Yunnan-Burma demarcation should not be delayed any longer. That is to say, in June of the 18th year of Guangxu (1892), the Prime Minister's Office stated that according to repeated telegrams from Wang Wenyun, the governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, British troops were often stationed at Madian Savage Mountain on the border of Yunnan. Cruise, and have urged local officials along the border to conduct detailed inspections and reports of drawings and drawings. Xue Fucheng often discussed border affairs with the British and foreign countries, and initially supported the abbreviation formulated by Zeng Jize and the then British Foreign Minister Clay. He still planned to use Lu to argue with the British foreign countries. The area east of the Yangtze River was placed under China's jurisdiction, and Bahu was also included in it. However, the British Foreign Ministry said that although this proposal was made at the time, it was not approved later. Xue Fucheng argued with the British Foreign Ministry that no resolution had been reached. After deliberation, it was believed that after Xue Fucheng was appointed as the envoy to the UK, he "assisted in the demarcation of the boundary and planned methods, lest any slight ambiguity would lead to future harm." Moreover, the original commentator (referring to Zeng Jize's discussions with the British Ministry of Foreign Affairs) The records and files of the talks are all in the London Embassy. They can discuss it nearby and should be given full-time responsibility for this matter." However, the outside world in the UK is unwilling to actually discuss the matter, and since the minister is not a member of the dedicated parliamentary circle, he cannot help but wait and see. Therefore, it is recommended to send Xue Fucheng to be responsible for handling the Yunnan-Myanmar border business affairs with the British external affairs in order to emphasize the authority. In addition, the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office also ordered Wang Wenshao, the Governor-General of Yunnan and Guizhou, to find out the land and water boundary between Yunnan and Myanmar, and then forward it to the Department of Mapping and Communication to Xue Fucheng for reference in deliberation. After the terms were agreed with the British, on-site boundary demarcation matters were handled by the Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou. After the report of the Prime Minister's Foreign Affairs Office was approved by Emperor Guangxu Zhu, he immediately issued a note to the British Minister Hual Shen, saying that he would send Xue Fucheng to discuss the Yunnan-Myanmar border affairs with the British. After Xue Fucheng received the dispatch order, he immediately contacted the British outside. The British sent two officials including Shan Tesheng to meet with Magri sent by Xue Fucheng to discuss the matter of demarcating the China-Myanmar border. Xue Fucheng also sent a note to the British outside, requesting the division of the Barbarian Mountains, that is, the land north of Balhou and east of the Dajinsha River, and asked the British troops to withdraw from Xidong (Sadongna) as soon as possible.
(1) Yao Wendong examines the situation on the Yunnan-Myanmar border
As mentioned in this article, Xue Fucheng suggested that the imperial court send people to negotiate with the British as soon as possible, but the Qing government's attitude was to delay the process, but Xue Fucheng still attached great importance to the situation on the Yunnan-Myanmar border. To learn more about the local border situation, he asked Yao Wendong, the Zhili alternate route who was in Paris, France at the time, to return to Beijing, to travel through India and Myanmar to spy on the terrain of the border between Yunnan and Myanmar. Yao Wendong took a boat from Paris in January of the seventeenth year of Guangxu (1891), arrived in Myanmar in March, took a boat along the Irrawaddy River and went north to Xinjie, Manong and other places and entered the Savage Mountains. He arrived in Tengyue in April and Kunming in May. . Yao Wendong wrote a report to Xue Fucheng about his exploration of the Yunnan-Myanmar border.This description of the situation on the Yunnan-Myanmar border is compiled as follows:
(1) describes the situation in the savage mountainous areas on the Yunnan West Road border: Yao Wendong said that he arrived at Xinjie (Baqi) on March 22 and took the bus from Xinjie in early April. The boat arrived at Manong, which is located at the western foot of Yeren Mountain. Yeren Mountain is the boundary between China and the outside world. It is also the area currently divided by various chieftains in China, which is known as Nanya Mountain in Ming history. It was originally within the boundaries of Yunnan and was not a place to fight. Yao Wendong said that during the Qianlong period, the old border between Yunnan and Burma included Mengjie, Mengyang, and Manmu in the west, and Mengen, Mubang, and Mengmi in the south, including the six chieftains. Later, the six chieftains were seduced by Myanmar, and China no longer interfered. The New Territories are based on the Nandian, Longchuan, Mengmao, Ganya, Zhanda and other Tusi that currently belong to Tengyue, the Zhefang, Mangshi and other Tusi that currently belong to Longling, and the Che Shisanmeng Tusi that currently belongs to Pu'er. It ends at the Great Jinsha River. The records of Yongchang and Tengyue are all testable, and Savage Mountain is within the New Territories. At this time, Yao Wendong reported that "Yunnan is in desolation at the end of the world. It does not matter the situation. He does not know that Yunnan has the potential to overthrow the world. If you go from Yunnan to Sichuan, you will occupy the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. From Yunnan to Hunan, you will occupy Jingxiang. The north can be shaken. Today, with India and Myanmar as the backbone, the situation is even better than before. The gains and losses of Yunnan are related to the world, and the gains and losses of Baoyenshan are related to Yunnan. If we can protect Yunnan, the whole world will be safe. A mountain is connected by a shallow weir." Yao Wendong's focus on the Savage Mountains this time pointed out that whether to preserve the Savage Mountains was not only related to the ownership of the local chieftains, but also related to the safety of Yunnan and even the entire China.
(2) describes the situation of Xinjie on the border of Yunnan West Road: Yao Wendong said that the two halls of Tengyue and Longling crossed Yeren Mountain to connect to Myanmar. There were nine roads in between, all converging on Xinjie. Xinjie was the hometown of the Manchu chieftain during the Qianlong period. Also, if we could take back Xinjie to block the gates and protect the main hub, it would be a better way to defend the border. However, Xinjie has fallen to the British and cannot be returned, so there is a proposal to protect the nine roads of Savage Mountain and guard our boundaries to contain it. Entering is still the best strategy. If we abandon Savage Mountain, there will be no danger of border defense in the future.
(3) explains the Menggen situation on the border of South Yunnan Road: Yao Wendong said that outside the Che Tusi area on the south side of Yunnan was the land of Menggen and Mubang Tusi during the Qianlong period, which was what the British called the land of the Shan people, and there were those on the east side of the lower reaches of the Lujiang River. In the car and Menggen, there are only a few small rivers connecting each other, so there is no danger. However, Menggen was an important border town on the bank of Lujiang River. If Myanmar crosses the Lu River and invades Simao, there are three routes. Meng Gen always controls the rush of the river route, which is actually a key point. Yao Wendong said that Xinjie and Menggen were like the wings of a bird in Yunnan. Xinjie straddled the mountain as a dangerous screen to defend its west, and Menggen straddled the river as a dangerous screen to defend its south. They were both battlegrounds in the situation. If you miss these two dangers, you will be like a bird without wings. In the past, the British wanted to return all the east of the lower reaches of the Lujiang River to China, that is, the land within Menggen, which would benefit Yunnan's border affairs. But now the British overturned the previous proposal.
(4) explains the situation of Chashan and Lima chieftains on the border of North Yunnan Road: Yao Wendong said that the boundary of Yunnan North Road is more than 800 miles north of Yeren Mountain and there is Outuo land. According to legend, it was the border between Chashan and Lima chieftains in the Ming Dynasty. The land now belongs to neither China nor Burma. Yao Wendong carefully examined the terrain and found that there are three ways to enter China from there: one leads to Tibet, one leads to Dajianlu in Sichuan, and one leads to Yongbeiting in Yunnan. If they fall to the British in the future, the border defenses of the three provinces will be exhausted. (Yeren Mountain produces yellow fruit trees, and the land is commonly known as a pulp factory. The mountain also produces gold mines)
Yao Wendong concluded at the end of this report:
West Road Yeren Mountain is originally a place within the current Tusi realm, with new and old ambitions. According to... Meng Gen, east of Lujiang on the South Road, was the old chieftain during the Qianlong period... The Pulp Factory on the North Road is the farthest away from Burma, and it does not belong to Burma. However, the border guards of our three provinces are very large. According to public law, wasteland does not belong to the state. No matter which country is under the jurisdiction of the ruler, it can be taken as its own. It should be occupied with military force, and it can be the first to occupy it.
Xue Fucheng said that Yao Wendong's analysis of the situation on the Yunnan border and Myanmar was "quite careful in his assessment, and his discussions were insightful. Although there were some things that he could not do, and his extensive consultations, weeks of visits, hardships, and knowledge of current affairs, It is not without benefit." Therefore, this report was submitted to the imperial court for review.Yao Wendong explored the border between Yunnan and Myanmar and wrote a total of 14 reports, such as "The Situation of the Great Jinsha River (Part 1 and 2)", "The Theory of Savage Mountain", "Eight Passes Are Not the Boundary between Yunnan and Myanmar", "Old Barbarians Must Fight for China" Articles such as "Land Theory" provided Xue Fucheng with considerable assistance as a reference for negotiations with the United Kingdom. Later, someone compiled these fourteen reports and the files of Yao Wendong, Xue Fucheng and other relevant officials discussing the Yunnan-Myanmar border into a book. It is "Yunnan Boundary Demarcation and Preparation Notes", which is an important classic for studying the Yunnan-Myanmar border.
(2) Xue Fucheng strives for the Savage Mountains
Xue Fucheng actively negotiates with the British outside the Yunnan-Myanmar border, but it does not seem to be going well. The main reason is that the British are unwilling to give up the Savage Mountains and use the Great Jinsha River as the boundary, especially the country's stationed in Indian official Kimberly had a very tough attitude. Not only did he oppose the surrender of land, but he also sent troops to enter the Xima and Zenda areas. If the British forcefully occupy the Savage Mountains, they will threaten the chieftains along the border of Yunnan Province and the area in western Yunnan. Therefore, Xue Fucheng believed that "Dian Province is approaching a powerful neighbor, so it is necessary to select generals and train troops without delay... As for the savage mountainous areas, the Yunnan map is outside, no matter how hard it is to fight for, even if it is obtained, he knows that Yunnan Province still has difficulties in sending troops and officers." However, it will be too easy for the other tribe to obtain it, and it will definitely arouse the military spirit, so I should try my best to reason, so that they can benefit me a little bit, and then I will be famous for letting them, and I can stifle my cunning and have a long-lasting success." Xue Fucheng's remarks also pointed out the importance of the Savage Mountains and how to prevent them from being occupied by the British. Xue Fucheng said that he would personally go to the British Ministry to discuss with the foreign ministers of the country. "Prime Minister's Office of Foreign Affairs - Burma Files" contains a file titled "Six copies of the Yunnan-Myanmar Border Affairs and the British Foreign Exchange Notes and One Notice Each", which records the opinions between Xue Fucheng and the British external affairs on the Yunnan-Myanmar border and demarcation. The record of the meeting on the savage mountain issue is 22 pages in total and is very detailed. Xue Fucheng said that the British side had not responded to the note he sent asking for the Savage Mountains. After his repeated urging, the British Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent a letter saying that if China did not ask for the Savage Mountains, Britain could cede the Burmese Shan areas to China. The British said that Che (Jiang Hong) and Menglian, two chieftains, had paid tribute to Myanmar, and the British had the right to ask. However, Xue Fucheng denied the British statement and said that the two chieftains, Cheche and Menglian, were owned by China.
In the note sent by British Foreign Minister Lawsbury to Xue Fucheng, it was mentioned that the area between Menglian and Jianghong was outside the Chinese border when Britain defeated Upper Burma. China claimed that this area was under Chinese jurisdiction, and Britain was quite surprised. Britain believed it had jurisdiction over the upper reaches of the Elovati River. If China is willing to negotiate the upper reaches of the Elovati River with Britain, Britain can cede the Menglian River to China. If the Qing government does not negotiate with Britain on other parts of the border, Britain will definitely transfer the above-mentioned areas and Menglianjianghong and other places to Britain. Regarding what Lawsbury said, Xue Fucheng replied that what Lawsbury said was too vague. He was very disappointed. There were two reasons for his disappointment: First, the British opposed China and North Korea's inquiry into Myanmar east of the Elovati River. The rationale for the northern area has not yet been revealed. Second, he asked the British Foreign Minister to withdraw his request for the use of troops by Xi Dong in order to continue the negotiation on the demarcation of the China-Burma border. A date for the renewal of the negotiation has not yet been set. (The author found two "disappointment" text notes above this paragraph in the file on this page. This should have been written by someone who copied the file or reviewed it later. Xue Fucheng should belong to the upper section of the east side of the Elovati River. China. The British garrison should also withdraw from Xidong.
Regarding Xue Fucheng's accusation, Lawsbury said that after consulting with the Indian government, it was discovered that China had the right to overlord the Kaiqin (Geqian) area. The local boundary starts from the Enmeikai River and ends at the Ruili River. The Kaiqin natives living in the west of this boundary have not been managed by China since ancient times, and the land of the Elovati River has not been managed by China for hundreds of years. , I have asked, so the land on both sides of the Elowati River above Bafou and beyond the confluence of Enmekai River and Ma (Mai) River should belong to Myanmar, and the Chinese documents were found. It is also stated that this place is not Chinese territory. Furthermore, the civil and military officials of Yongchang Prefecture and Tengyue Department issued a notice stating that "It is prohibited to protect the natives who attack Xidong." This shows that the Kaiqin people are outside China and are not under the jurisdiction of China. There is no basis for questioning the reason for this. The British said that if China is willing to set the China-Myanmar border in accordance with the opinion of the Indian government (that is, the Savage Mountains belong to Myanmar and will not be bounded by the Elovati River), the British will plan to use the Saarland as the boundary. The land east of Wenjiang was given to China.
Xue Fucheng retorted to Lawsbury's statement, saying that he was very dissatisfied with the British government's claim that it had not been able to find any evidence that China had once governed the Kaichin natives. Xue Fucheng said:
There are many natives in various countries who belong to their own country but have no solid basis for governance, and they are not found outside special borders. They are also found in the eighteen provinces of China. For example, the Miao people in Hunan and Guizhou live in the mountains. They are not usually governed by China, but in fact they are not not governed by China. From this point of view, if China has not governed the Kaiqin people, it cannot be said that China does not have the right to govern because there is no evidence of governance.
As for the statement that the land on both sides of the Elowati River to the confluence of the Enmei Kaijiang and Malikai Rivers must be managed by Myanmar, Xue Fucheng said that this was a new statement made by the British in negotiating border affairs and that he had never heard of such a statement. . The British side mentioned that the northern part of Myanmar, the middle of the border between India and China, was the area set aside by Zeng Jize during negotiations with the British outside world. Zeng Jize explained at the time: "This area is outside Myanmar, and China and Britain must negotiate separately in the future. Since the 10th year of Guangxu's reign, Two years later, whenever anything was said about the area east of the river, it was regarded as a place of great influence in China. Even the British court also had this discussion. When the former emperor was on the Chinese side of the border, when the land was divided according to the geographical situation, it should belong to China. ". When the Qing court asked the British troops to withdraw from Xidong in the 18th year of Guangxu's reign, the British court did not put forward any opinions on the ownership of this place.
Xue Fucheng also said that former British Foreign Minister Shah Hou once said that "the British govern the land east of the upper section of the Elovati River because of the interests of the two countries. To protect the interests, China and North Korea must first ask for permission. The British have no right to govern." . Xue Fucheng also told Shahou that the land east of the upper section of the Elovati River was inhabited by savages, and these savages must be divided between the two countries in the future. It can be seen from this paragraph that Xue Fucheng believed that the two countries should discuss how to divide the land where savages lived in the east of the upper reaches of the Elovati River. And this area does not belong to Myanmar.
As stated in this document, the focus of the notes exchanged between Xue Fucheng and Lawsbury was the issue of the division and ownership of Yeren Mountain (the land east of the upper reaches of the Irrawaddy River), Cheche, Menglian, and Jianghong. Xue Fucheng still believed that the British The Savage Mountains should be divided with China and the Great Jinsha River should be used as the boundary. However, the British still insist on the statement that "Myanmar once administered the land east of the Elowati River until the confluence of the Enmeikai River and the Malikai River." Therefore, This area should belong to Myanmar. The Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs also supports Xue Fucheng's proposal to use the Dajinsha River as the boundary, and does not recognize the claim that the savage mountainous areas are returning to Myanmar. The Prime Minister's International Affairs Office told the British Minister in Beijing, Ogner:
China is willing to divide the Savage Mountains. The Savage Mountains are originally vast, and the Great Jinsha River is in between. In terms of mountains, there are more in Jiangxi and less in Jiangdong. China wants to With the Great Jinsha River as the boundary, the two countries are actually on the same level, but still have to give way to each other. Because the natural situation is the easiest to distinguish, China claims that this method is used to maintain the best relations with China.
Therefore, the Qing government at that time planned to follow Xue Fucheng's suggestion, that is, use the Great Jinsha River as the natural boundary between Yunnan and Myanmar. However, the British did not agree with this demarcation method, and the British outside and Xue Fucheng were still arguing about the mountainous demarcation line. . In September of the 19th year of Guangxu's reign (1893), Xue Fucheng reported to the imperial court the progress of the past year or so of negotiating with the British external affairs on the Yunnan-Myanmar border affairs.
Xue Fucheng said that regarding border issues, the British promised to Zeng Jize that they would take over the Nanzhang and Shan chieftains to China as territories, and make the Jinsha River a public river, and set up a commercial port near Bali. However, later the British Foreign Ministry did not recognize the abbreviation agreed with Zeng Jize, and said that "Western public law cannot be disobeyed after the contract is made, and cannot be observed before the contract is made, because it is based on the agreement." Xue Fucheng lamented:
The three ends of the previous discussion (referring to the abbreviation of Zeng Ji's deliberations) cannot be relied on, and the move to expand the boundary is completely uncertain. Although the chieftains in the Yunnan border areas have been under the control of China for a long time, they often paid private tribute to Burma since the Qianlong period. Now that the British colonized this area to claim the inherent rights of Burma, they may refer to it as belonging to two countries or separate the border areas, which is dangerous. It is inevitable that if China loses its feudal vassal and belongs to the front, but also hides behind the border, it will not only be laughed at by its neighbors, but also feared to be coveted by people from far away.
Xue Fucheng's words illustrate that Britain's external affairs are unstable. If they do not actively debate and deliberate, or make mistakes, the chieftains on the Yunnan-Myanmar border may be lost, and the Yunnan-Myanmar border will be in danger.Xue Fucheng's worries were not alarmist. After his investigation, he found that the British sent hundreds of troops into Yunnan in the name of checking the boundaries, causing panic among the local chieftains. The British also sent troops to be stationed for a long time in Xidong outside Shenghu Pass and Handong outside Tiebei Pass. After discussions between Xue Fucheng and the British, the British finally agreed to withdraw their troops.
Xue Fucheng said that the Savage Mountains are not under the jurisdiction of Myanmar. According to the public laws of all countries, the land should be divided equally between China and Britain. Therefore, he proposed a demarcation method that uses the Great Jinsha River as the boundary and the territory east of the river belongs to Yunnan, but the British did not agree. The British government negotiated with the country's Governor-General in India to cede a land to China southwest of the Olive Dam in Mengding. This land was called Kegan, between the Nanding River and the Lujiang River, which was the old soil of the Menggen Tusi, totaling 750 square miles. From the border of Tusi Menggen, including Hanlong Pass, we drew a straight line eastward and ended at the other side of Mali Dam on the Lujiang River, totaling 800 square miles that were returned to China. In the car, the chieftain of Menglian (who was under the control of Yunnan territory and had recently established a new town hall) was willing to transfer full power to China and agreed that the charter would not be used. As for the connection between the old boundary of western Yunnan and the Yeren Mountains, for example, the Xima where British troops are currently stationed in the north of the Murray River, starting from Pinglong Peak in the south to Saboping in the west, crossing Nanzhang to Xinmo, totaling 300 square miles, and Mu There is a land south of Leijiang and east of Yangjiang, covering about 780 square miles, which belongs to China. The rest will be divided according to the original map boundaries of Yunnan Province.
The Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs believes that Xue Fucheng's opinions on demarcation with the British outside are "beneficial and not harmful" to the original old boundary, and the terms should be discussed immediately. Xue Fucheng said that the boundaries of the Eight Passes in Tengyue were not clear and needed to be discussed with the British outside. Because Hanlong Pass had long been occupied by Burma and Tianma Pass was also occupied by savages. There were only six of the Eight Passes left. After he argued with the British outside, this It seems that the second pass can be returned to China. Han Dong was originally outside the boundary. After his efforts, the British outside was also willing to give in. Therefore, the boundary negotiation has been completed and the terms can be negotiated.
(3) The "Sino-British Renewal of the Yunnan-Myanmar Border Commercial Treaty" was signed
Xue Fucheng believed that although he was ordered to discuss the demarcation of the border with the British outside, although he did not gain much land, he gained five benefits: First, it showed all countries that they had no choice but to Contempt. The second is to hide India and prevent it from prying eyes. The third is to protect the chieftain from temptation and threats. The fourth is to defend the Yunnan border and prevent it from advancing. Fifth, the invocation of public law has achieved some obvious results. Xue Fucheng said that after he negotiated with the British outside to demarcate the boundary, he realized that the boundary discussed by Zeng Jize had different forces and obstacles up to now. All the tribes in Nanzhang have been returned to Siam, but the British want to take possession of Kangdong chieftain of Shan people and refuse to let me. The lands obtained through negotiation are all nearby and easier to control. Xue Fucheng said that he drew a map of the boundary between Yunnan and Burma, and used three yellow, red and green lines to distinguish the old territory, the new territory and the territory occupied by the British and withdrawn.
Looking at the content of Xue Fucheng's memorial, the most important thing is that he was reporting to the court that he was negotiating with the British outside the Yunnan-Burma demarcation. From the beginning, the British outside did not recognize the demarcation abbreviation drawn up by Zeng Jize. After his hard negotiation, he finally got the British outside. Promising to give up land would yield some gains in expanding the border. A map of the Yunnan-Burma demarcation was also drawn. The yellow, red and green lines on the map represent the new and old boundaries and the line of British concession land. This map drawn by Xue Fucheng is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. The map is also named "Yunnan-Myanmar Boundary Map". The map has longitudes and latitudes, and a legend is written on the right side of the map: The yellow line represents the original boundary of the Yunnan border in the past century, and the blue line The line is the boundary that the British initially planned to occupy, and the red line is the actual boundary of the Yunnan border. The villages, towns, chieftains, passes and other places on the map are all marked. The three boundary lines are with the red line on the far left, the yellow line in the middle, and the blue line on the right. The three boundary lines are not very far apart. The eight passes of Tengyue mentioned by Xue Fucheng in the memorial are also marked on the map. These eight passes are located on the west side of Tengyue. From north to south, they are Shenhu Pass, Wanren Pass, Jushi Pass, Tongbi Pass, and Tieguan Pass. Biguan, Hujuguan, Tianmaguan and Hanlongguan.
Xue Fucheng wrote the above memorial and attached this map to report to the Qing court his negotiations with the British outside on the Yunnan-Myanmar border. Judging from the map, Xue Fucheng hoped to negotiate with the British outside and use the red line as the dividing line, then On the right side of the red line, the Kegan, Menglian, and Thirteenth Banna Tusi lands (in the car) all belong to China.The author compared Xue Fucheng's memorial with the map and found that the memorial had three lines: yellow, red, and green. The green line was the boundary occupied by the British and they withdrew. However, the legend on the map said there were three lines: yellow, blue, and red. The blue line was the boundary occupied by the British. The boundary initially planned to be occupied, the yellow line is the old boundary and the red line is the new boundary. It is correct that the blue line is clearly drawn on the map. Why is it written as a green line in the memorial? However, the "boundary occupied by the British and withdrew" written in the memorial is different from that on the map. The semantics of writing "the territory that the British initially planned to occupy" are quite different. Why this phenomenon occurs is worthy of further exploration.
In addition to submitting the above-mentioned memorials and maps to the imperial court, Xue Fucheng also sent the minutes of the meeting between him and the British Foreign Secretary to discuss the demarcation method to the Prime Minister's Office of International Affairs, which highlighted that the British side did not allow Xue Fucheng's proposed division of the Elewati River. land, so Xue Fucheng once again proposed the demarcation method of "taking a strip of land outside China from the Murray River to 25°40' north latitude, about 20 miles wide, including Xidong, to be returned to China." Xue Fucheng said that the 20-mile area was intended to retain many local Chinese residents. However, the British side proposed to give up an area of about five miles in length to the north and south of the Murray River, including Xima, but the British would not give up the Xidong area. In addition, the British side also proposed that the dividing line between the mountains and rivers between the Salween River and the Enmeikai River should be used as the dividing line from the north of Saboping. Xue Fucheng believed that the most reasonable way was to draw the boundary between the Maili Kaijiang River and the Enmei Kaijiang River. Judging from the content of the talks between the two sides, there are still differences on how to draw the line.
Xue Fucheng negotiated with the British outside until December of the 19th year of Guangxu (1893). The two sides gradually reconciled their opinions. Within the old boundary, the British had no objections, but Hanlong Pass and Tianma Pass had long been occupied by Burma and savages. The British agreed to return them to China after investigation. However, the two passes of Huju and Tiebei were only known by their names, but they were not investigated. After examining the actual location, it was discovered after investigation that the pass had already been occupied by the British. Xue Fucheng believed that Tiebei Pass could be returned, but Huju Pass was very difficult to return because of the insistence of the country's governor in India. As for the division of the savage mountainous areas, Xue Fucheng reached an agreement with the British outsiders that "the terrain where the savages live is considered to be less than tens of square miles from the division of China, and the land from the east of Mengmao to the west bank of Lujiang is hereby compensated to China." .
Xue Fucheng mentioned in the memorial the reason why the British outside attaches great importance to the Savage Mountains, as well as the issue of division. Xue Fucheng said:
The British are paying attention to operators who want to enter Tibet from the Savage Mountains in western Yunnan, but from the north of Xidong, The British have not yet gone deep into the land of Xianyi and Nuyi. It is initially thought that it can be roughly divided into 28 and 9 degrees. However, since it is untouched by humans, there is no way to investigate it in central Yunnan. In case it is unclear. If they are mixed into Tibet, they will definitely enforce the treaty as evidence in the future. The relationship is not light. Now they have been fighting for four times, and it is stipulated that from the north of twenty-five degrees and thirty minutes, there will be no division for the time being.
This passage mentioned by Xue Fucheng is also the reason why the Savage Mountain Area is temporarily not demarcated north of 25 degrees 35 minutes north latitude.
He also expressed his feelings about the difficult process of negotiating with the British to divide the Yunnan-Myanmar border:
Looking back at the time when the former envoy Zeng Jize was negotiating, it has been eight years since the treaty was negotiated again, and it is far more difficult to gain or lose. Clear evidence. I think again and again, the decision should be made quickly rather than late, and the prevention of danger should be far rather than close. It is not worth using a corner to hinder the overall situation. It is also not convenient to fight for small profits and fall into conspiracy. To judge the situation, use emotion and hardness and softness, and just in the tiger's position Although the boundary drawn east of the pass cannot be restored to the old territory more than a hundred years ago, it seems to be slightly expanded compared to the New Territory guarded on the Yunnan border. This boundary has been roughly drawn up.
This passage by Xue Fucheng expresses his attitude towards the negotiation of border affairs between Yunnan and Burma. After Zeng Jize was summoned, he immediately suggested to the court that they should actively negotiate with the British. The longer the delay, the more detrimental it would be to the Qing court. Later, he was ordered to take over. After the negotiation mission, he actively explored the situation on the Yunnan-Myanmar border, and despite the difficulties, negotiated with the British outside and finally achieved results, slightly expanding the border. At the end of this memorial, Xue Fucheng mentioned the following plans for expansion: to the west, he planned to recover the Xima and other places in Yeren Mountain, and to recover the Iron Wall, Tianma and other passes; to the south, he planned to recover the areas outside Wanding and Lu. In the Kegan land east of the river, the two chieftains, Che and Menglian, were taken back. He signed a draft of the "Burma and Burma Border Commercial Treaty" with the British Foreign Secretary and submitted it to the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office. After approval, the contract can be renewed.On July 23, the 20th year of Guangxu's reign (1894), the Qing government's Minister Gong Zhaoyuan, who was stationed in Britain, France, Belgium, and Italy, and the British Minister of Foreign Affairs Kimberley signed a contract exchange in London, and a certificate of exchange was issued. The Yunnan-Myanmar border issue, which had been delayed for many years, finally came to an end for the time being after Xue Fucheng persevered and worked hard to negotiate with the British outside.
7. Conclusion
Xue Fucheng was not afraid of the difficult situation and persisted in negotiating the Yunnan-Myanmar border issue with the British outside. The main reason was that after the British occupied Myanmar and signed the "Sino-British Myanmar Clauses" with China, they deliberately delayed Instead of demarcating the border with the Qing court as agreed, as Xue Fucheng feared, the British planned to use this opportunity to "open up our door. In the name of sending troops to demarcate the border and travel, they spied on dozens of chieftains on the Yunnan border and threatened to Two attributes, then Xu and I divided the boundary. Since each chieftain has evidence of two attributes, once he has an opportunity, he will seize it with his troops... How many chieftains are there? When the chieftains are gone, the hinterland will also be warned. How can he think about it cunningly? Therefore it is wisdom." Xue Fucheng's words exposed the British conspiracy to delay the demarcation of the border with the Qing court, in order to seize the land of dozens of chieftains on the Yunnan border as their own.
In addition, Xue Fucheng believed that the abbreviation discussed by Zeng Jize and the British outsiders was not ideal, because it would cause "China to lose Burma in front and regain the Yunnan border behind, and feel that it has already suffered a huge loss." Based on these two points and Xue Fucheng's concern about the Yunnan-Myanmar border issue, he volunteered to report to the court to take on the important task of negotiation.
It can be seen from the archive records of Xue Fucheng's external negotiations with the British contained in the "Prime Minister's Office of Foreign Affairs - Burma File", or the later compiled "Illustrated Notes on the Demarcation of Yunnan and Burma", "Diary of the Mission", etc. Xue Fucheng was very serious about the negotiations. He made a very detailed exploration of the mountains and terrain on the Yunnan-Myanmar border. He sent Yao Wendong to inspect the Yunnan-Myanmar border and wrote a very detailed report for Xue Fucheng's reference. Xue Fucheng also relied on relevant information. Draw a map as a reference for negotiations. Because he had done enough homework and planned carefully, British foreign officials did not take advantage of him in negotiations. Therefore, Xue Fucheng believes that negotiations on dividing the border between Yunnan and Myanmar and recovering several places are fruitful.
Xue Fucheng had objections to the Qing court's decision to temporarily postpone his request for external negotiations with the British. He believed that the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office's attitude was not positive enough, allowing the British to take advantage of the opportunity to expand, and would have a negative impact on the Yunnan border. Stability will have a great impact, he said:
For decades, Western countries have known that China has a vast territory and has a reputation of not competing for distant lands. When border issues arise, they rarely ignore them. If they can be allowed to encroach, they will So Ryukyu, Vietnam, and Burma were regarded as vassals... China has always kept the precept of celebrating great achievements and avoiding the suspicion of trouble in the frontier. If you get it, you will be like a stone field, if you lose it, you will not be diligent and far away... When you are far away, you will be relaxed when you are close. Already anxious.
Xue Fucheng's words refer to the dilemma of the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office in handling foreign affairs at that time. Xue Fucheng asked the Prime Minister's International Affairs Office to stop having the concept of not being diligent and far-sighted. If the fire is not extinguished at a distance, it will surely affect the family. Xue Fucheng negotiated to recover the land occupied by the British. The court at the time highly praised him for his ability to conduct arduous negotiations on the Yunnan-Burma border between Britain and outside the UK. The results he achieved cannot be denied. As for the "Sino-British Burma Clauses", the "Sino-British Renewal of the Yunnan-Burma Border Commercial Treaty" mentioned in this article, and even the original "Supplements and Special Articles to the Sino-Burmese Treaty" later signed by Li Hongzhang and the United Kingdom, as well as the reasons at that time Several original maps drawn during the Yunnan-Myanmar border negotiations (the above files are all stored in the "National Palace Museum" in Taipei), plus the "Yunnan Documents" attached to the second volume of "Prime Minister's Office of International Affairs - Myanmar Documents" and "Modern Chinese Boundary History" "Burma Boundary Map" are very important files for studying the negotiations between the Qing court and the British on the Yunnan-Burma border issue in the late Qing Dynasty. They allow us to have a deeper understanding of the Qing court's demarcation of the Yunnan-Burma border issue during the Guangxu period. These historical materials are very useful for reference. value.
This article was originally published in "Research on Chinese Frontier History and Geography" Issue 3, 2019
