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That fateful decisive battle has become history, and Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek have become historical figures. As we enter the 21st century, the two sides of the Taiwan Strait have not yet been reunified. Everyone is thinking whether there are other ways besides war to return Taiwan to the embrace of the motherland. —— Liu Tong
Liu Tong (September 1, 1951 - December 21, 2022) was born in Beijing. From 1978 to 1981, he studied for a master's degree in the History Department of Shandong University, studying under Mr. Wang Zhongluo. From 1985 to 1988, he studied for a doctoral degree at the Institute of Historical Geography of Fudan University, under the tutelage of Mr. Tan Qixiang. He successively worked at Shandong University , Academy of Military Sciences of the Chinese People's Liberation Army , and Shanghai Jiao Tong University . In 1996, he was awarded the rank of senior colonel.
Why the Kuomintang lost the mainland
1946 to 1949 was an earth-shaking era in Chinese history. In just three years, the Kuomintang Chiang Kai-shek regime, which had absolute military and economic superiority, was defeated by the Chinese Communist Party and its army headed by Mao Zedong, and fled the mainland in disgrace. Sixty years have passed, and the Kuomintang generals continue to reflect on the reasons and lessons learned from losing the mainland. For them, this is an extremely bitter memory. A Taiwanese scholar wrote a thick book "Why the Mainland was Lost". The author also used this title to explore the reasons.
Mao Zedong’s strategic foresight: Chiang Kai-shek is more difficult than the Communist Party
It should be said that after the victory of the Anti-Japanese War, Chiang Kai-shek’s prestige reached the peak of his life, and he was the embodiment of orthodoxy. At that time, the Communist Party was unwilling to fight. Mao Zedong's political report at the Seventh National Congress of the Communist Party of China was titled "On Coalition Government", hoping to establish a democratic regime in which the Kuomintang and the Communist Party cooperate.
When negotiating in Chongqing, Mao sincerely proposed the program of "political democratization and nationalization of the military" and the intention of peaceful nation building. However, Chiang could not tolerate the existence of the Communist Party. Once the troop mobilization was completed, he launched an all-out attack on the liberated areas.
Chongqing Negotiations
In the early three months of the war, the situation was extremely unfavorable to the Communist Party, and 106 counties were occupied by the Kuomintang troops. At that time, most cadres believed that the Communist Party's military strength did not yet have the conditions to compete with the Kuomintang army. Two leading cadres in the Northeast wrote a report to the Central Committee, proposing three countermeasures: concession in order to seek peace, delaying to wait for the opportunity, and fighting resolutely to determine the outcome. Here, fighting is the last resort. Mao Zedong thought about what to do for three days and three nights. Fighting, there is no guarantee of victory for the time being; but giving in has no way out. On July 6, 1946, Mao Zedong made his final determination and drafted an instruction to the party. He affirmed that the analysis of the two cadres was realistic, "but the shortcoming is that the difficulties faced by U.S. imperialism and Chiang Kai-shek were underestimated, and the favorable conditions for the international and domestic people's democratic forces were also underestimated."
This instruction was conveyed to all war zones, and everyone was puzzled. Who would believe that Chiang Kai-shek was more difficult than the Communist Party? But this was Mao Zedong’s strategic foresight. As the leader of a country, Chiang Kai-shek carried a heavy burden! He wanted to move the government agencies, factories and refugees in the rear areas back to the coastal areas; he wanted to reestablish political power and economic order in the occupied areas; he wanted to try traitors, clean up the traitors, and reorganize the puppet army; he wanted to repatriate the 3 million surrendered Japanese soldiers and their families. Fighting against the Communist Party was only one of his many affairs, and the Communist Party went all out. Therefore, Chiang Kai-shek still had more troubles and difficulties. Mao Zedong seized on the weaknesses of the Kuomintang, boosted the morale of the entire party and the entire army, and began a three-year war of liberation.
No one expected that the Kuomintang regime and army would collapse in just three years. Whenever the memoirs of Kuomintang generals mention this, almost no one is convinced.It can be seen from the movie that many of the Kuomintang generals are highly educated and have studied abroad. During meetings, their military uniforms are straight and their stars are shining. However, the PLA cadres' uniforms are shabby. During meetings, some squat on stools and some hold pipes in their mouths. How could the rustic "communist army" defeat the regular national army? In the past, we said it was due to the corruption and unpopularity of the Chiang Kai-shek government, but those who fought the war knew in their hearts: War is a life-and-death contest, and there is no room for hesitation. On the battlefield, both sides are fighting with real swords and guns. The success or failure of one or two battles may have accidental factors, but the outcome of the entire war will not be accidental. There must be several aspects that the Communist Party can do but the Kuomintang cannot. Based on research over the years, the author puts forward the following four points of view -
Who can concentrate superior forces
The Communist Party can concentrate superior forces and dares to stride forward and retreat, regardless of the gains and losses of one city or one place; while the Kuomintang army is constrained everywhere and has advantages but cannot concentrate its forces. Why do you say that? Every time the Kuomintang occupies a place, it has the responsibility to defend the land and bring peace to the people. For example, to occupy Shenyang and Changchun, one army must be left behind; to occupy Zhangjiakou and Anshan , one must leave behind; and to occupy a county, at least one company must be left behind. The further the Kuomintang troops advance and the more places they occupy, the more dispersed their troops become, and the number of troops available for frontline operations gradually decreases. The Communist Party was different. At the beginning of the war, the army retreated in large strides, but it did not lose much strength. For example, after the Battle of Siping in May 1946, Du Yuming led the Kuomintang's ace army to launch a massive offensive, and Lin Biao's troops retreated across the Songhua River. At that time, Lin Biao made the worst plan: to abandon Harbin and lead his troops to fight guerrillas in northern Manchuria. But the Kuomintang army suddenly stopped advancing when they reached the Songhua River. Du Yuming and Chiang Kai-shek were very anxious. Why not move forward? It's not that we don't want to fight, but because we don't have enough troops, we have to stop.
Sudden attack on Kaifeng. Photo by Zou Jiandong, field reporter of the Xinhua News Agency's frontline branch of the East China Field Army.
A year later, the People's Liberation Army began to counterattack. Chiang Kai-shek was in a passive situation because his troops were scattered across the country and every city had to be defended. The Communist Party concentrated its forces and attacked city after city. In March 1948, Su Yu commanded the Battle of East Henan, , and first found weakly defended areas to fight. Kaifeng was the capital of Henan Province at the time and was guarded by only one division. Huaye used the absolutely superior strength of three columns to defeat it in three days. At that time, the "National Congress" was being held in Nanjing. The National Congress representatives from Henan ran to the presidential palace overnight, knelt down and cried bitterly, begging Chiang Kai-shek to take back Kaifeng. Chiang Kai-shek ordered the 5th Army of Qiu Qingquan , one of the five main forces, to take back Kaifeng. Qiu Qingquan was originally waiting for Su Yu in Shangqiu . He knew that Kaifeng was an empty city and worthless, but he still had to carry out the order. When the Kuomintang newspaper published the news that "the Kuomintang army has recaptured Kaifeng", Su Yu went around Qiu Qingquan's back and ate up the District Shounian Corps in one bite. There are many such cases. When Chiang Kai-shek finally woke up and organized his troops into a heavy group to prepare for a decisive battle with the Communist Party, it was too late. At this time, the People's Liberation Army had an advantage. In Mao Zedong's "Ten Major Military Principles", concentration of superior forces was listed as the first one. Does Chiang Kai-shek understand this? Of course he understands, but he is restricted by too many conditions and has more than enough ambition but not enough energy.
Who can turn the enemy into ourselves?
The Communist Party is good at turning the enemy into itself, transforming prisoners and replenishing the troops. East China Field Army has the best solution in this regard. In every battle, troops will suffer casualties. Replenishing the Kuomintang captured soldiers into the army is a necessary measure to maintain the integrity of the army's organizational structure and restore its combat effectiveness. At the end of 1947, Chen Yi gave a report in the Shanxi-Sui Military Region. He lectured for three days, especially introducing Huaye's experience in transforming captured soldiers.
After the Menglianggu Battle ended in May 1947, Chen Yi instructed that none of the prisoners of the 74th Division should be released. 6,746 prisoners were transferred to the rear for review, training and redistribution.How to realize the ideological transformation from Kuomintang soldiers to People's Liberation Army soldiers? Huaye Political Department has figured out a way in practice? Experience: Carry out a mass movement to melt and reform prisoners, and inspire the class consciousness of the captives through complaints. Old and new soldiers get along day and night, living, marching, and fighting together, and can exchange ideas anytime and anywhere. The exemplary role of Communist Party members and the consistent democratic style of the People's Liberation Army officers and soldiers can most impress the captured soldiers. They saw that PLA cadres were fed, clothed and housed like soldiers. The squad leader helped the new soldiers boil footbaths and spread straw when they were camping. When they were marching, they helped the new soldiers carry their belongings and gave good houses to the new soldiers. Everyone moved and said: "The squad leaders of the Kuomintang have to be served by small soldiers, but the squad leaders here take care of us."
Fierce battle at Menglianggu - Huaye Second Column commanders rushed over the mountains and ridges towards Menglianggu, Photo by Zou Jiandong
As the war progresses, in most cases the People's Liberation Army fights continuously. As soon as the battle was over, the captured soldiers were added to the army. Being captured on the first day and participating in the battle with the troops the next day is called "capture immediately, replace immediately, and fight immediately", which shows that the political work of the People's Liberation Army has reached a new level. In the People's Liberation Army, both old and new soldiers can receive awards for their meritorious service as long as they show bravery in battle. These "liberation fighters" relied on their good personal military qualities in battle and showed their advantages of wit and flexibility. Chen Yi praised this very much and called on the veteran soldiers to learn from them. Chen Yi said: "We have a battalion commander commanding three companies to attack the enemy in a village. There is an open area outside the village, and there is no emphasis on fire cover. Seventy or eighty people were killed or wounded in one charge. One of the captive soldiers was a light machine gun shooter. When he saw the battalion commander shouting, 'Hit! Fight! Fight!' he said: 'Batalion commander, where do you want to hit?' The battalion commander could not answer him. He said: Use the machine gun to block the enemy's holes and cover them. The battalion commander agreed with his opinion. He commanded three machine guns to suppress the enemy's firepower. The enemy surrendered without any casualties. "
" Once the "liberation fighters" awakened, they radiated great energy. In contrast, the Kuomintang could not do these and could only use its own troops to "give gifts" to the Communist Party. Take the 74th Division of the "Ace Army" as an example. After being annihilated in the Battle of Menglianggu, Chiang ordered it to be reorganized. In September 1948, the 74th Division went to the Huaihai battlefield. Four months later, he was annihilated again by Huaye. Chiang ordered the 74th Division to be formed for the third time in the south of the Yangtze River. By October 1949, it was annihilated by Huaye in the Battle of Xiamen. It took at least a year for the Kuomintang to form an army, from recruitment, training, equipping with weapons to going to the battlefield. It was not long before it was wiped out by the People's Liberation Army. Most of the captured soldiers turned into the People's Liberation Army and turned their guns against the Kuomintang.
Let’s look back at the strength comparison between the Kuomintang army and the People’s Liberation Army during the Liberation War: When Chiang Kai-shek launched a full-scale civil war in June 1946, the Kuomintang army had 4.3 million people and the People’s Liberation Army had 1.27 million people. In February 1948, the Kuomintang army had 3.65 million people and the People's Liberation Army had 2.49 million people. The strength of both sides was close. By the end of the three major battles in January 1949, the Kuomintang army had only 2.04 million soldiers left, while the People's Liberation Army had risen to 3.58 million people, forming an overwhelming advantage. There have been so many changes in just over two years. In addition to the PLA annihilating a large number of Kuomintang troops on the battlefield, a large number of captive soldiers have been transformed into PLA soldiers through education and transformation. This is an important reason for accelerating the transformation of the strength of both sides.
Who can fully mobilize the masses
The Communist Party can use a strict and efficient organizational system to fully mobilize the masses to support the war, which is what we call people's war. When mentioning this, everyone immediately thinks of the spectacular scene of rolling wheels and millions of migrant workers in the Battle of Huaihai. Yang Botao, commander of the 18th Army of the Kuomintang, was captured together with Huang Wei in Shuangduiji. He was unconvinced at first. His army is one of the five main forces and has very strong combat effectiveness. After he was escorted off the battlefield, he saw civilians everywhere behind the PLA. Some were pushing carts for the PLA, some were treating the wounded, and some were cooking for the PLA.He sighed and said: Where have we seen such a scene on the battlefield? It is simply impossible for the Kuomintang army to mobilize so many ordinary people to support the war.
Chen Yi: "The victory of the Huaihai Battle was pushed out by the people on small carts."
Why was the Communist Party able to mobilize so much manpower and material resources? The most fundamental difference is that the Kuomintang is a loose organization, while the Communist Party is tightly organized and enforces orders and prohibitions. The Communist Party's organization extends to every village in the liberated areas. Each village has a party branch, village committee, militia and armed committee, women's salvation association, and children's league. Through these grassroots organizations, the Communist Party fully controls human and material resources and maximizes their effects. For example, in front of the branch, the superiors will distribute the quota for mobilizing migrant workers to each village. The village will study who should go, who will take care of their land after leaving, how to compensate for casualties, and how to pay for labor subsidies. Every link of the organization is carefully arranged, so that you have no worries before the branch. Through local organizations, the Communist Party solved many problems such as conscription, front support, and material transfer. Although the resources and strength of the liberated areas are not as good as those of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, the full mobilization of manpower and material resources has given the People's Liberation Army a strong backing and can carry out the war with all its strength.
The Communist Party also used organizational power to resist the harm of the Kuomintang-controlled areas and control the economic lifeline of the Kuomintang-controlled areas. In 1948, prices in Shanghai skyrocketed, people were in dire straits, and the economy collapsed. It’s not that Chiang Kai-shek wanted to do this. The fundamental problem was the shortage of materials. There was no rice and no cloth, so prices were raised and profiteers were hoarding. Why does this situation occur? Because in early 1948, the Communist Party basically controlled Northeast China, North China, and the Jianghuai region, while the Kuomintang only controlled big cities such as Changchun, Shenyang, Peiping, and Jinan. 100% of the country's coal resources, more than 80% of the wheat-producing areas, and more than 80% of the cotton-producing areas are all controlled by the Communist Party. The liberated areas saw the currency of the Kuomintang-controlled areas depreciating every day, and took measures to prevent the Kuomintang currency from entering the liberated areas and harming the economy of the liberated areas. The Communist Party also stipulates various policies and draws up several lists, including lists of allowed and prohibited imports and exports. What can be exported? Antiques and cultural relics can be exported to Kuomintang-controlled areas, but grain and cotton cloth are not allowed to be exported. Kerosene, paper, and medicines produced in Kuomintang-controlled areas can be imported because the liberated areas need these things. There are many things that are not allowed to be imported. Luxury goods such as silks, cans, and cosmetics are not required in the liberated zones. This is the real "rural area surrounding the city". There is no source of supplies in the big cities in the Kuomintang-controlled area. How can we not panic? Chiang Ching-kuo went to Shanghai to "fight the tiger" to crack down on hoarding and stabilize prices, but ultimately failed because of the inability to overcome resource shortages. When Chiang Kai-shek resigned from power in January 1949, Du Yuesheng, the president of Shanghai, wrote to Mao Zedong, requesting that industrial products from Shanghai be exchanged for coal from Kailuan. Mao Zedong approved it, and Shanghai could not be allowed to collapse. Tangshan coal was brought to Shanghai, maintaining people's livelihood. How could the Kuomintang not collapse if it had no economic foundation?
The Third Field Army of the People's Liberation Army entered Nanjing City and was warmly welcomed by the citizens in front of yijiangmen. Photo by Zou Jiandong
Who can penetrate the opponent’s heart
The Communist Party’s intelligence, infiltration, and instigation work penetrated into the heart of the Kuomintang, and the hidden front played a major role. In war years, it is an obvious truth that whoever has intelligence can win the war. Due to the loose organization and lax political review of the Kuomintang, anyone with connections could gain access to any government agency or confidential department. As early as during the Anti-Japanese War, the Communist Party took advantage of the opportunity of the united front and the cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party to dispatch a large number of intelligence personnel to the Kuomintang government and the army and lurk for a long time, establishing many insider relationships. During the Liberation War, these insiders played a big role.
When the Kuomintang army launched a key offensive against northern Shaanxi, Mao Zedong insisted on staying in northern Shaanxi to deal with Hu Zongnan. Why did Mao dare to do this? The most important reason is that Hu Zongnan’s confidential secretary Xiong Xianghui is an intelligence agent of the Communist Party.Xiong Xianghui sent the battle plan to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China before Hu Zongnan attacked northern Shaanxi, so Mao knew Hu well. During the Battle of Pingjin , Fu Zuoyi's daughter was the spy of the underground party. Fu's every move and even his expression were clearly known to the CCP. The course of the war was of course under the control of the People's Liberation Army. Let’s talk about instigating rebellion. At that time, the political departments of each field army had enemy work departments dedicated to instigating rebellion against the Kuomintang troops. In March 1946, Jinan leader Wang Yaowu ordered General Li Xianzhou to command three armies and cooperate with the southern front to eliminate Huaye in the Yimeng Mountain area. Chen Yi and Su Yu decided to attack Laiwu first. Han Liancheng, commander of the 46th Army of the Kuomintang, has relations with the Communist Party. Our liaison officer arranged for him to leave before the battle. As soon as Han Liancheng left, the 46th Army lost its command, and Li Xianzhou's other two armies were also confused. Huaye's main force took advantage of the situation and launched a fierce attack, wiping out all three Kuomintang armies in just one day. Wang Yaowu was confused and said that more than 50,000 people would be killed in one day. Even if I let 50,000 pigs out, it would be enough for the Communist army to capture them for a week.
Such examples abounded during the War of Liberation, especially at the critical moment of the war, when the Communist Party's abnormal policies led to the collapse of the entire Kuomintang army. In contrast, the Kuomintang has advanced communication equipment and a huge secret service agency, but it is unable to obtain any intelligence from the liberated areas-the liberated areas are full of vigilant eyes, and the Kuomintang spies have nowhere to hide. It has been three days since the Huaihai Campaign began, and Xuzhou's "Suppression General" commander Liu Zhi still doesn't know where the Communist army's main attack direction will be. Even though the Kuomintang has thousands of troops, it is blind and deaf without intelligence. The outcome is decided like this.
html Three million troops crossed the river. The picture shows the moment when the commandos jumped out of the bow of the ship and landed. Photographed by Zou Jiandong
Chiang Kai-shek retreated to Taiwan, learned from the pain, and adopted a series of reform measures, including land reform, completely transforming the Kuomintang, and establishing a political and ideological work system. During his lifetime, he always dreamed of "counterattacking the mainland." On the mainland, the New China established under the leadership of Mao Zedong has gained new vitality and is prospering after the reform and opening up. China is playing an increasingly important role on the international stage. The strength comparison between Taiwan and the mainland is no longer the same.
END
author | Liu Tong
editor | Zhan Qianhui
proofread | Miao Yiqi
This article was originally published in "Together in the Same Boat" Issue 5, 2008, the public account "Sanlian Academic Communications" (WeChat ID: sdx_xueshu)
