Liu Zilin
At the end of 1510 AD, Afonso de Albuquerque had just ended his war in India, successfully occupied the west coast of India, and settled in Goa, which originally had a Christian community. Establish a Portuguese colonial base. Later, Goa became one of the three major Portuguese bases in the Far East (the other two being Macau and Timor ).
In the spring of 1511, a group of armed fleets composed of Portuguese, Indian- Middle East -African sailors who converted to Catholicism, and a few Muslim guides who maintained their faith set out from the west coast of India under the leadership of Alfonso. Swing sailing to the Strait of Malacca further east. All members participating in the voyage knew that this expedition would definitely bring greater wealth to the De Avis family (the royal family of Portugal), and that the destination was far more important than the west coast of India.
Alfonso de Albuquerque
It can be said that they are "good luck" - compared with the strenuous war in India, their destination is the wealthy Sultanate of Malacca (The Sultanate of Malacca) ) faced two very serious political crises: on the one hand, Sultan Mahmud Shah (1474-1528) married Tun Fatimah (about 1490-1560), who was about 20 years old at the time. This caused great uneasiness to Crown Prince Ahmed (1490-1513) who was stationed in the capital of Malacca. According to records at the time, Ahmed already had a son who was at least two years old; on the other hand, in 1510 Tun Mutahir (approximately 1450-1510), who served as the "Bendahara" (Bendahara, also translated as "Bandahara", the prime minister with actual administrative decision-making power) of the Malacca Sultanate, was replaced by Sultan Mahmud The Shapai executed him, along with his two sons, three grandsons, and son-in-law Tun Ali. And Tun Ali's wife is Fatima , who will soon become Sudan's third queen. This death penalty case was not just against the "Pandahara" family. A large number of Indian Muslims living in Malacca were looted, and some Indian ministers were beaten to death by soldiers in order to protect their property.
The occurrence of these two incidents has undoubtedly intensified the political crisis in Malacca - this is a very significant challenge for the prince who already has children; and it is also another "shuffle" for a certain size of Indians in the country. "; What's more serious is that a European fleet that defeated the Muslim-Hindu alliance is slowly heading to Malacca. This incident directly led to the split of the Malacca Sultanate. Since then, the Malay Sultanates have been in a state of decline and have not regained the hegemony that the Malacca Sultanate had in controlling the Strait of Malacca. Therefore, later generations of scholars regarded this incident as the "sunset of Malacca", and most of them accused the Sultan of leading to the overthrow of the country due to selfish interests.
However, history is not a simple one-way narrative. This "bride snatching" massacre that occurred on the eve of the collapse of the Malacca Sultanate seemed to be a temporary act of the Sultan's "covetousness", but in fact it reflected the continuous consequences of the Malacca Sultanate's founding. Political disputes - a century-long entanglement between the original royal family of Sri-Vijaya and Indian dignitaries. This dispute, even after the split of the Malacca Sultanate, still affected the Sudanese legal system in the Malay Peninsula for a long time.
Business and politics: The rise of Indian political factions in Southeast Asia
In 1397, in order to avoid the invasion of Majapahit (a powerful kingdom in Java, 1293-1527), the last Srivijaya lord, Temasik (Temasik , today Singapore ) Prince Parameswara (1344-1414) moved north with a large number of people to settle in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula. Five years later (1402), the first invasion of Siam was repelled, the city was successfully built, and the Kingdom of Malacca was established.
In the late period of Parameswara's reign, the king, who was over seventy years old, married a Sumatran princess as an equal wife for himself and his sons (Muslims can theoretically marry four or less wives, but their status must be the same, so they are called "equal wives". Wife"), accepted Islam and became "Sultan".
Portrait of Parameswara
Since the large-scale marriage, the Srivijaya family as a noble class accepted Islam as the royal faith on a large scale, and affected the Malay people from top to bottom. During the reign (1414-1424) of the second Sultan Iskandar Shah (recorded as "Yisi Handar Shah" in "Ming Dynasty Records"), Ma Huan, the Hui translator who accompanied Zheng He on his voyages to the West, recorded that Malacca ( Manlajia) "Everyone in the king's country has returned to Islam, fasted, received precepts and recited sutras."
However, in the early days of the establishment of the Malacca Sultanate, in addition to the Muslim nobles of Sumatra who gave religious influence to this emerging regime through marriage, there was also a powerful political force. These merchant groups with "dark skin, high nose bridges, and sunken eye sockets" are called "Keling" or "Kelinga" in Malay historical narratives, which actually correspond to the Indians living in Southeast Asia. Muslim community, and overwhelmingly Telugu and Tamil. Their activities in the Malay Archipelago were already very active before their ancestors accepted Islam. With the activities of Indian traders in the Malay Archipelago, the Hindu-Buddhist belief system, Pali script, and related trade routes have taken root in the Malay Archipelago and the southern Malay Peninsula.
Early Pali stone carvings in the Malay Archipelago, taken by the author in 2013, Indonesia Jakarta
html From the 0 to the 10th century, as the trade routes of Middle Eastern merchants were established on the Indian coast, Islam gradually began to operate on the Indian coast - from A large number of Muslim business groups have emerged from Sindh and Gujarat in the northwest to Bangladesh on the east coast.Since this commercial link connecting the Malay Archipelago and South India had been operating for nearly a thousand years in the 15th century, at the beginning of the establishment of the Malacca Sultanate, there was still a large presence of Indian Muslims. For example, when his grandfather Paramesura had just converted to Islam, Muhammad married the daughter of a "Kalinga" merchant and gave birth to Qasim (1410-1459) after the marriage.
However, after the death of the late king Iskandar Shah in 1424, in order to win the support of his fellow tribesmen, Muhammad Shah married a royal woman as his queen, and before his death in 1444, he gave up his young son Shiliba Misiwal to Ba ( Sri Parameswara Dewa, also known as "Parameswara II") was established as the crown prince.
This matter of abolishing the elder and establishing a younger one aroused Qasim's dissatisfaction: He was the crown prince of Malacca Sultan recognized by the Ming Dynasty and other surrounding countries, but he was replaced by a young half-brother. With the support of his uncle Tun Ali, Qasim launched a coup under the guise of a nobleman, killing his brother, stepmother and their supporters, and became the fifth sultan of the Malacca Sultanate. In return, Tun Ali became the first "Panda Hara" of non-Malay origin in the history of the Malay cultural circle.
The first thing Qasim did after he came to the throne was to defeat Siam's invading army from the south and ensure the security of the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, Qasim was called the "victor" by historians, that is, "Muzaffar" (Muzaffar), and the Ming Dynasty history books called him "Wudafo Nisha". [Author's note: Shah originates from Persian, meaning king; and Muzaffar is both a common name among Muslims and an external honorific for a great monarch. The "Muzaffar Shah" in the article is Qasim, the leader of the resurgence of the Malacca Sultanate. Because all the monarchs of the Malacca Sultanate since Iskandar have followed the Islamic monarchy, since 1414, Malayan monarchs have had the habit of adding "sha" after their names (or honorifics). 】
Muzaffar Shah's succession broke the original Malay aristocracy's absolute monopoly on royal politics - his biological mother was of Indian origin. Under his rule, Indians' enthusiasm for participating in politics has increased, gradually forming a situation of "both business and politics".
1456, Tun Ali passed away. When this powerful minister was dying, his eldest son, Dunmo Taixiu, was less than 10 years old. In order to protect his faction from being subverted and to connect the Malay-Indian nobles, before his death, Tun Ali recommended Tun Parak (about 1405-1498), Parameswara's nephew, as his next successor. "Pandahara".
Muzaffar Shah agreed with his uncle's last words.First of all, on the one hand, Sultan Muzaffar Shah considered that his blood was "impure" - all sultans in the past were born to Malay noble women, and he himself was the daughter of a "Kalinga" merchant. On the other hand, his accession to the throne was truly disgraceful - everyone knew that he planned the murder of his younger brother and stepmother, which would be considered a treasonous act in any cultural circle. In this case, the Sultan must give an explanation to the royal family regarding the choice of future rulers.
Secondly, Siam invaded the south in 1445, and Muzaffar Shah was suspected of killing the Sultan's younger brother. Under the premise of political instability, Tun Perak and other collateral royal families did not pursue those responsible for the coup. Instead, they led their pro-army troops into battle to kill the enemy and ultimately won the war. For this reason, Muzaffar naturally had some feelings for Tun Perak. Feelings of respect.
Tun·Perak
Since then, the "Jilinga" merchant group has gradually become a powerful political faction that is "both business and political" by maintaining this alliance. It can be said that as a minority group that plays the role of "intermediary", the "Jilinga" merchant group is very familiar with promoting communication between different civilizations and has become an indispensable intermediary force in the kingdom.
Peaks and valleys: The ups and downs of Tun Mok Taisho
In 1469, Mansur Shah (Mansur Shah, the sixth sultan of the Malacca Sultanate (called "Mangsu Shah" in Ming Dynasty literature, 1432-1477) suffered from a headache) Incident-His eldest son Raja Muhammad (known as "Mahamusa" in clear texts, 1450-1475) was playing chess with Tun Perak's younger son. Tun Perak's son won the game and was furious. Prince Mohammed picked up the chessboard and smashed the opponent to death.
Mansour Shah was very worried that this matter would continue to ferment, because many ministers proposed to severely punish the crown prince. But unexpectedly, as the father of the deceased, the old prime minister Tun Perak immediately reprimanded all ministers who proposed punishing the prince, especially his younger brother and other sons. After suppressing his grief, the elderly Tun Perak proposed that the Sultan transfer Prince Mohammed to Pahang to end the dispute on this matter.
At the same time, Tun Mo Taixiu had been lobbying other ministers in the Malacca court, hoping that they would support the third prince Alaudin-Riayat (1458-1488) as the new crown prince. The reason is very simple. Tun Mo Taixiu's sister married Ala'uddin and gave birth to the grandson of King Mahmud. This incident made Dun Pili feel very worried. He had a premonition that Taixiu Dun Mo would push him into a dead end, because the power was so overwhelming that Tun Pili, under the powerful royal power, did not dare to shed a tear when his son was killed. Tun Mo Taixiu was nothing more than the Sultan's cousin. At a young age, he dared to influence the succession of the Sultan's court. Dun Pili warned brother Dun Mo Taixiu more than once to "be careful in your words and deeds."
In 1477, Mansur Shah died at the age of 45, and Alauddin became the new monarch of the Malacca Sultanate. After Sultan Alauddin ascended the throne, the Malacca Sultanate's official governance and military discipline were effectively rectified. Although he only ruled for a short 11 years, the young Sultan Alauddin was still called a wise king by later generations.
1488, 30-year-old Alauddin Shah was poisoned and the murderer is unknown. According to Alauddin's original plan, the next sultan would most likely be his younger brother or nephew. However, Tun Mok Tai Siu, as the prince's biological uncle, mobilized the courtiers as "Temenggung" (a Malay military position) to support Mahmud Shah, who was born to his sister, as the new sultan. At this time, Tun Perak was still nominally the "Panda Hara" of Malacca, but in fact he was no longer able to resist the power of "Temenggong".
Portrait of Tun Mo Taixiu
By assisting his nephew, Tun Mo Taixiu reached the peak moment of his life. In the ten years before Tun Perak's death, all the decrees issued by Mahmud Shah actually passed through the hands of Tun Mo Taixiu.
Several sons of Dunmo Taixiu all married royal princesses, allowing his young grandsons to receive titles. Different from Dun Perak's treatment, any royal family that offends his descendants will be substantially punished.
However, compared to his arrogant disciples, Taixiu Dunmo paid great attention to his own cultivation.For example, Taixiu Dunmo would change seven sets of clothes each time and take three showers a day. Since Dun Perak did not allow direct descendants to engage in politics, and his younger brother who participated in political affairs was already old like him, in fact no one in the court could restrict the expansion of Tun Mo Taixiu's power.
Therefore, at that time, both the government and the public in Malacca believed that half of the world in Malacca belonged to the Jilingga people. The political faction composed of Indian Muslims posed a great threat to the Malay aristocratic system originally constructed by the descendants of the Srivijaya Kingdom.
Map of the Malacca Sultanate
1 In 1498, 93-year-old Tun Perak came to the end of his life. Since "Panda Hara" is in principle executed for life, Tun Perak has spent 42 years in this position. Before his death, Tun Perak gave his great-grandson a piece of linen clothing and a chewed betel leaf to signal him not to get involved in the wealthy family again. When he saw Tun Mo Taixiu, Tun Perak once again expressed his concern with a very worried expression. He said to him: "I advise you to stay away from the wealthy family, I am really worried that you will encounter the disaster of annihilation!"
Even so, according to his promise to Tun Ali, Tun Perak gave Tun Motai the title of prime minister. The order of ranking has been moved forward, hoping that the Sultan will still rely on his uncle to weigh the old Malay aristocracy. In 1500, the Sultan gave "Pandahara" to his uncle Dunmo Taixiu. The 50-year-old Ton Mo Taixiu finally received a legitimate title after holding real power for many years.
However, as the Indian political faction grows, divisions begin to appear within it. Around 1508, Mahmoud Shah, who already had children, proposed marriage to Tun Mo Taixiu, hoping that Tun Mo Taixiu would marry his youngest daughter Fatima to him as his queen. Tun Mo Taixiu immediately refused on the grounds that he had already married his daughter to his nephew Tun Ali. Tun Ali is the son of Tun Mo Taixiu's younger brother Tun Tahir. In the eyes of most people, this marriage is a normal political marriage.
At that time, there was already a pro-Indian Malay prince who warned Tun Mo Taixiu that if he did not take the Sultan's request to heart, he would be punished very seriously. Tun Mo Taixiu sternly refused, believing that the Sultan's robbery of his wife would seriously deviate from the principles of Islam. If he agreed to the Sultan's request, it would be tantamount to apostasy. At the same time, many Indian ministers tried to impeach Tun Mo Taixiu. Before the conflict broke out, Mahmoud Shah did not respond directly, which paralyzed Tun Mo Taixiu's family.
From 1510 to 1510, an Indian minister, Jiduer, came to Shu and accused the "Pandahara" family of hiding weapons, raising soldiers, and trying to rebel. Since he had obtained "evidence" before, Mahmoud Shah concluded that his uncle was "up to something evil" and ordered the house to be searched.
Tun Mo Taixiu's son Tun Hassan (Tun Hassan) picked up the serpentine sword (Kirs), which symbolizes Malay power, and declared that the Sultan had no right to "check the prime minister's family status" on weak grounds. Tun Mok Taixiu changed his clothes and burned incense as usual, and told his son to put down his weapons: "If the Sultan wants us to die, no matter how loyal we are, we will not be able to escape this disaster."
Mahmoud Shah's men seized some weapons, and at the same time "Discovered" Taixiu Dunmo's "unruly letters", and executed Taixiu Dunmo for treason.
Also executed at the same time were Tun Hassan's two brothers, as well as Tun Tahir and (young) Tun Ali's father and son. In "Oriental Chronicles", the Portuguese recorded that the three grandsons of Tun Mo Taixiu were also killed. Their execution method was: the samurai stabbed the victim's forehead with a snake pattern sword and let their blood flow out.
Tun Tahir's youngest son was also among the people who were executed at the time. However, he survived after being pierced in the forehead and was pardoned according to traditional Malay law, thus continuing the bloodline of Tun Ali's family. Moreover, some of Tun Mo Taixiu's grandsons escaped because of their young age. They became world-honored nobles during the Johor period (1511-1699), and took "Panda Hara" as their family surname. Finally, they replaced the direct lineage of the Malacca royal family and became the Malacca royal family. A new royal lineage came to Asia - the "Pandahara Dynasty" (1699-1870) until "Temenggong" Abu-Bakr of Johor (1830-1894) became the Sultan of Johor.
In Malacca's legal system, the emphasis on "loyalty to the king" can be said to be the highest among many Islamic countries. During the later years of Mansur Shah's reign, the military general Hang Jebat, who was deeply trusted by the people, was accused of being a "traitor" because he directly criticized the Sultan in the court. His friend Hang Jebat was ordered to kill him with tears. Stabbed to death on the spot.
Because of the continuation of the Malacca legal system in various sultanates, before the middle of the 20th century, Han Jabal was negatively narrated as a "rebel" by historians. Until the establishment of Malaysia, with the efforts of reformist scholars, the Han Dynasty Jebocai gradually became a positive military image and was considered a hero who dared to question the Sultan.
Hang Tuah's death, Hang Tuah mourned on the sidelines
After massacring his uncle's family, Sultan Mahmud Shah suddenly became "rational" again and instructed Hang Tuah's son to "investigate" the case of Tun Mok Tai Siew—— This is not only to give an explanation to his uncle's old men, but more importantly, he needs a reason to marry Tun Fatima legitimately. According to the strict regulations on the dignity of the nobility, the "rebel's daughter" cannot become the queen of the Malacca Sultanate.
Under the "discovery of conscience" by Mahmoud Shah Sultan, he "cryed bitterly" to vindicate his uncle. To show his "guilt", the Sultan ordered that Jiduer, who led the impeachment of Tun Mo Taixiu, be "lyed on a picket pillar and imprisoned". "executed to death", and a large number of South Indian Muslim businessmen were raided and imprisoned. Later, the Sultan married Tun Fatima. Since then, the most powerful Muslim faction in South India has collapsed.
When Mahmud Shah liquidated the "Kalinga" forces, the "Kalinga" faction's homeland in the west, the west coast of India, had become the sphere of influence of the Portuguese colonists. The invasion of Portuguese colonists completely changed the fate of the Strait of Malacca.
Building capsized: Sunset in Malacca
1 In the spring of 1511, Alfonso de Albuquerque's fleet arrived in the Strait of Malacca, and Malacca asked the Ming Dynasty for support. The Ming Dynasty always attached great importance to its relationship with "Manraka", a sincere tributary country. Every time the sultan changed, the Ming Dynasty would send envoys.
In response to Malacca's request for help, the Ming Dynasty agreed to send troops to assist. But when the imperial order arrived in Guangzhou, the order was suppressed by the eunuch Huo Zhe Yasan of Guangzhou, who was in charge of the city, so he stood still. Yasan the Fireman was dissatisfied with the Malacca merchants and Huihui merchants for not paying him bribes and accepting bribes from Portugal (Melaka also had Yasan the Fireman during the same period, a Muslim general who guarded the city when the Malacca Sultanate was about to collapse. Although both of them were Chinese, but not the same person).
Prince Ahmed and Hang Tuah and his son resisted on the front line. However, at this time, Sultan Mahmud Shah took Tun Fatima and fled all the way to Johor. The Sultan's escape greatly damaged the morale of the army, and to add fuel to the fire, Ahmed was seriously wounded by a Portuguese musket. At this point, the number of Malacca's defenders was even less than the total number of Portuguese invaders' sailors.
In August 1511, Malacca fell. Ahmed, Hang Tua and other remaining troops fled to the border between Malacca and Johor to continue resisting. The Sultanate of Malacca collapsed at this point and was divided into Johor (the original lineage of the Malacca royal family), Pahang (a collateral line of the Malacca royal family), Perak (descendants of Tun Perak's nephews), Aceh (immigrants from Champa), and many others. Independent or semi-independent Malay Sultanate.
1513, Sultan Mahmoud Shah sent people to send poison to the front line to poison his eldest son Ahmed. The trigger of this issue was: Tun Fatima gave birth to Alaudin of Johor (1513-1564) as the second prince. Since then, Hang Tuah and his son resigned in anger and returned to their fields.
By the time the Ming Dynasty arrested Ya San, the fire master in Guangzhou, and formally reviewed the Malacca issue (1521, the 16th year of Emperor Wuzong of the Ming Dynasty), Malacca had already become a Portuguese colony. As a result, the Ming Dynasty and the "France" (Portugal) began a state of antagonism that lasted for many years. Half a century later, Macau was controlled by Portugal, which brought the relationship between the Ming Dynasty and Portugal to a freezing point.
Portuguese ruins in Malacca
In 1528, Sultan Mahmud Shah died and his 15-year-old son Alauddin succeeded to the throne.With the assistance of Queen Mother Tun Fatima, the Johor army repelled Portuguese attacks many times, so much so that the Portuguese colonists lamented that they were not afraid of adventurers from Aceh and Danmu, but they were extremely afraid of a woman - the Queen Mother of Sudan Tun Fatima. Fatima. Regardless of the previous suspicion of her father's massacre, Tun Fatima worked hard to help the survivors of Malacca and restored order in the Johor Sultanate to a certain extent. This queen, a South Indian Muslim woman, became a national hero in the eyes of the Malays because of her good governance, and she also made the people temporarily forget the misfortune of her family.
The image of Tun Fatima designed by future generations
However, shortly after the death of Queen Mother Tun Fatima, Johor was invaded by another sultanate, the Aceh Sultanate. In 1564, Sultan Alauddin of Johor defeated Aceh. Most of the princes died in the battle, and Alauddin himself was beheaded by the Sultan of Aceh; six years later, Muzaffar Shah II, the son of Sultan Alauddin, was poisoned to death. Since then, the line of Mahmoud Shah has been cut off, and the descendants of Enter the Great Sect.
In 1699, the young Mahmud Shah II died of food poisoning. Since he only had a daughter, the direct line of the Malacca Sultanate's royal family was completely extinct. Since then, new aristocrats with different cultural backgrounds have taken over various sultanates in the Malay cultural circle. The bloodline of "Jilinga" has also been integrated into these emerging wealthy families, and has continued to Malaysia today. They were completely different from the South Indian workers brought by the British colonists later, both in terms of religious beliefs and cultural orientations.
Conclusion: The gone "Kalingga"
In today's Malaysia, public opinion does not encourage the use of "Kalingga" as an ethnic nickname to describe citizens of Indian origin in the country - this statement has been used for a long time Neidu has been used by nationalists to criticize Indians. And unlike the "Kalinga" in history, the vast majority of Indians defined in Malaysian law now believe in Hinduism, and only a few believe in Islam.
Moreover, like the vast majority of Chinese, the vast majority of modern Malaysian Indians were sent to foreign lands by comprador intermediaries under the colonial rule of British imperialism to serve as the middle and lower-class labor force. This is different from the Indian businessmen who took the initiative to do business eastward ( Whether they were early Buddhist/Hindu believers or later Muslims) their social status was very different. The "Kalingga" of that year has been deeply embedded in the current Malay cultural circle through continuous "mixing and localization" in the process of the Age of Discovery.
However, regarding the so-called "Malay-India" dispute, the author believes that it should be considered more of a balance of power issue than a national narrative issue. As an important class in the Malacca Sultanate, although the "Kalinga" has its own regional, ethnic and cultural background, it also reflects the economic attributes of a group - that is, it serves as an intermediary group of powerful people who "combine politics and business".
Although the historical data is relatively simple, the fact that the elder Tun Ali’s sister was able to marry the grandson of the Sultan while the old Sultan Parameswara was still alive clearly shows that these South Indian Muslim businessmen were no longer ordinary at that time. A business group; and then Tun Mok Taixiu was able to dominate the power as a foreign relative, and it could trigger many chain reactions after being executed by the Sultan. To a certain extent, it also reflected the indispensable importance of the socio-economic "intermediary" in the Malacca Sultanate. .
Therefore, if you are lucky enough to come to Malacca, tourists can appreciate the blending of different cultures. There are ancient mosques with South Indian characteristics, a Catholic community that maintains Malay-Indian characteristics - the Christian community, and a Peranakan group "Baba Nyonya" that mixes Chinese, Iranian and Western cultural elements. .
The direct Hmong descendants of Paramesoara have left the stage of history, but their glory can still be found in the above-mentioned multiculturalism. The political disputes behind the massacre of Tun Mok Taixiu also profoundly reflect the true appearance of Malaysian history. .
Editor in charge: Zhong Yuan
Proofreader: Xu Yijia
