Some people may be curious about the question: Why do some people suffer from depression , while others don't - even in the same situation? Figuring out what makes a person more susceptible to depression remains one of the most pressing questions for researchers and mental health professionals.
Although researchers have no definite answer to "why some people are more likely to suffer from depression than others", there may be more than one factor influencing it. Research covers everything from physical and chemical differences in the brain to social and environmental risk factors.
The complexity of depression makes it a challenging mental illness to diagnose and treat. Understanding what may make a person more susceptible to depression is an important factor in developing prevention and treatment strategies to reduce individual vulnerability to this mental illness.
A more comprehensive understanding of the various mechanisms that cause depression can also help researchers better predict who will suffer from depression and how the condition will appear over time. With this information, mental health professionals can better predict a person’s response to antidepressants or other forms of treatment.
What causes depression?
New concept psychology expert Professor Rong Xinqi said that although some people may have experienced depression, the factors that form their depression will be different for everyone suffering from this mental illness.
Some factors, such as genetics, are beyond your control. However, there are other things that can be controlled, such as your diet, routine of work and rest. While making changes may not necessarily prevent depression, it may help reduce risks.
Whether you can change them or not, understanding these factors that can cause you to suffer from depression can help. Remember, experts and scholars are still figuring out the role of each factor. Having one or even a few factors that are thought to cause depression does not mean that you will definitely become depressed.
, biological factors
) Neurotransmitter
Researchers have not reached an agreement on the exact relationship between brain chemicals and depression, but this connection has been discussed for decades. Some established theories suggest that certain levels of neurotransmitter disorders (brain cells use to send signals to each other) can lead to depression. Other researchers suggest that depression leads to lower levels of certain neurotransmitters, rather than increased levels. This relationship may even be two-way.
It is well known that some people with depression feel better when taking medications that work on these neurotransmitters. However, researchers do not think this is enough to demonstrate a specific relationship between brain chemistry and depression, largely because some people with depression don’t feel better when taking antidepressants.
2)Genetics
Scientific studies have shown that people with a family history of depression are more likely to suffer from depression. But having a family history of depression does not mean that you will suffer from depression. There are other factors that can lead to genetic susceptibility to depression.
In addition, a large genome-wide study published in the American Journal of Psychiatry in 2019 found that people with a genetic tendency to major depression have an increased risk of suicide attempts in various mental illnesses.
3) Chronic pain and some physical diseases
Depression is common in people with chronic diseases such as multiple sclerosis, type 2 diabetes and migraine . Studies have shown that chronic pain conditions may lead to biochemical changes that lead to depression symptoms.
People with chronic pain and some physical illnesses may become depressed because of their situation, especially when they are facing a decline in quality of life, a decrease in daily functioning levels, long-term pain or death.
There are also studies that people diagnosed with one mental illness are more likely to suffer from another mental illness.For example, anxiety and depression usually occur simultaneously. While different mental health issues may be diagnosed simultaneously and may affect each other, they may need to be treated in different ways.
4) Hormone changes
Changes in certain hormones can also increase your risk of depression. For example, hormonal changes associated with menstrual cycles, pregnancy, delivery, and menopause can all lead to depression.
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that about one in nine women in the United States report suffering from postpartum depression . According to a 2010 study, about 4% of fathers reported depression in the first year after their child was born.
Professor Rong said that it is not uncommon for people with thyroid disease to experience depression. Although people with hypothyroidism (also called "hyperthyroidism") are more likely to experience depression symptoms, people with hyperthyroidism (also called "hyperthyroidism") may also experience anxiety and depression.
2, environmental factors
Environmental factors also seem to play a role in the development of depression in some people.
) Early psychological trauma and abuse
One of the more well-studied risk factors for depression is psychological trauma in early childhood. It is well known that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) increase a person's risk of mental and chronic physical illnesses, including depression, throughout his life. Research on ACE is underway, but many studies have confirmed that there is a close link between specific childhood experiences and later years of depression.
ACE is usually divided into three types:
·Abuse: physical, emotional, and sexual;
·Family dysfunction: Domestic violence, divorce, drug use, mentally ill parents, imprisoned parents;
·Neglected: body, emotion.
The number of ACEs in a person is closely related to their risk of mental and physical illness, poverty, and even premature death. Risk increases with the number of ACEs, and people with four or more ACEs are at the highest risk.
Researchers believe that children's abuse may physically change the brain and change its connection structure. Research also shows that neuroendocrine function in people who have experienced high stress in childhood may be changed.
A 2019 study even proposed that the traumatic experience of a child at a age of 0-3 may even change the child's DNA.
2) Poverty
According to a 2015 survey by the American Psychological Association, 64% of American adults said that money is an important source of stress in their lives. People living in poverty are twice as likely to suffer from depression than those living in a well-off or wealthier manner.
Living in poverty not only puts a person at a higher risk of depression, but mental and mental illness can make it harder for someone to escape the cycle of socioeconomic disadvantage if they are unable to work or have no access to support and social services.
Several studies and pilot projects also show that symptoms of depression and anxiety improve when people with mental and mental illness receive financial assistance.
3) Environmental exposure
Where a person lives will also have an impact on his or her mental health in many ways. For example, some people report that they become depressed in certain months of the year, sometimes calling it "seasonal affective disorder (SAD).
There are also studies that include pollution and other environmental exposures as potential factors that cause depression. For example, some studies link lead exposure in childhood to poor mental health in later years. In another study, children who grew up in areas with poor air quality seemed more likely to develop depression or be diagnosed with behavioral disorders at the age of 18.
Your environment can also become an asset for your mental health. Studies have shown that frequent walks in nature can help people cope with depression.
3, Social factors
In addition to biological and environmental factors, a person's personality, stress and conflict experiences, and even social factors such as social media can also affect the risk of depression.
) Personality
Certain personality traits, including low self-esteem, pessimism, neuroticism, self-criticism, or "perfectionist", are associated with more susceptibility to depression and other mental health problems such as anxiety, insomnia, and eating disorders.
Researchers are particularly interested in learning more about personality traits that may make someone less likely to suffer from depression. Resilience, or qualities that make some people more likely to “bounce” from bad experiences, may also be the key to preventing and treating depression.
2) Stress and interpersonal conflicts
Professor Rong said that major life events, including traditional positive events (such as marriage) or negative events (such as unemployment), will cause stress. When we feel stressed, our cortisol levels rise. One theory is that high levels of cortisol (especially when they are elevated over time) can affect serotonin levels.
, especially work-related stress, may be a driver of depression. Losing a job is a common and obvious source of stress, but the work environment can also cause stress, especially when a person feels no support.
Interpersonal conflicts at work or school can also make a person depressed. A 2010 Japanese study linked interpersonal conflicts at work to depression (especially among male employees with higher socioeconomic status); another researchers found that serious conflicts with colleagues or bosses, and/or feeling excluded or neglected at work, can lead to employee depression.
Professor Rong stressed that it is not only adults who experience interpersonal conflicts: children and adolescents may also encounter interpersonal problems at school, which may affect their short-term and long-term physical and mental health.
A 2017 report by the National Center for Education Statistics found that 20% of students aged 12 to 18 said they had been bullied in school. Children who are bullied are more likely to have mental health problems, including anxiety and depression, Professor Rong said. They are also more likely to suffer from physical illnesses, especially headaches and stomachache .
3)Sadness
Sadness is a process that looks and feels like depression, except that it usually follows a specific time frame, starting with an event (such as the death of a loved one) and then gradually moving towards a phase of resolution or acceptance. However, researchers are studying bereavement may have symptoms similar to clinical depression, especially in terms of how long it lasts (a few years instead of months).
Complex sadness, as people often say, seems more likely to lose a loved one in a sudden, unexpected, especially violent way (such as a car accident). Further research is needed to formally define complex grief as a unique condition, but it seems to be associated with depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Stress caused by death, significant loss, or other sources of life stress may be enough to trigger depression in people who already tend to have this condition.
4) Social Media
Although there are few and ongoing research on "social media and depression", there are still some studies that have investigated the impact of social media on mental health, especially on young people.
Several studies have shown that social media use can trigger depression symptoms and anxiety through insecurity, comparison, "fear of missing out" and bullying/harassment.
Overuse of social media can also lead to depression by reducing a person's physical activity level and interactions in real life. A sedentary lifestyle and social isolation are two factors that lead to poor mental health and have nothing to do with social media habits.
4, lifestyle factors
Finally, it is important that factors such as drugs, diet and lifestyle may also affect your risk of depression.
) Prescription drug
It is known that certain drugs may increase a person's risk of depression, including: β-blockers, corticosteroids, interferon-α, statins , etc.
The drugs used to treat mental illnesses and sleep disorders can also worsen or cause depression in some people. People under the age of 25 have an increased risk of increased suicide rates after starting certain antidepressants.
2) Substance use disorder
It is not uncommon for people with mental and mental illness to be "added to" illegal drugs, alcohol and nicotine. However, it is also important to note that, unlike some prescription drugs, illegal drugs can also be frustrating.
When substance use disorders and depression occur simultaneously, it may be difficult to find the right treatment. People often need a diverse team of doctors and mental health experts with experience in substance use disorders to help and support.
If a person needs to quit a substance, sometimes it is safest for them under medical care. Treatment in mental health agencies can also help a person address substance use disorders and depression symptoms that may accompany them.
3) Diet and physical activity
There are many studies showing that adults with mild depression can prevent the onset of major depression by changing their lifestyle; gut microorganisms and diet may also play a role in the development of depression. Some studies have also shown that certain diets, such as the Mediterranean diet, may help older people avoid depression.
On the other hand, a diet high in sugar and trans fat , especially highly processed foods, can promote or aggravate depression, especially when combined with a sedentary lifestyle. One possible reason for this connection is that diets with high levels of food can lead to weight gain. However, just weight gain does not necessarily lead to depression.
Although weight gain may be associated with the onset of depression, it should also be mentioned that eating foods high in sugar or trans fat can disrupt the balance of the intestinal microbiota, the immune system is alerted and releases cytokine that can pass through the blood-brain barrier, resulting in changes in neurochemicals. For example, some cytokines can transfer production from serotonin to glutamate, which when present in excess can lead to cell damage or cell death. When this happens, it can cause anxiety or depression.
As we all know, exercise has many benefits for our physical and mental health, but we are learning more about how exercise can help people with depression control symptoms. Several recent studies confirm previous studies that regular exercise and a healthy diet can not only help people control depression, but also help prevent depression.
Everyone’s experience of depression will be different, and individual factors that lead to the development and degree of depression will also be different. Generally speaking, mental and mental illness is common and treatable, but finding the safest and most effective treatment may take time.
works with professional doctors and psychological counselors and psychotherapists to develop coping strategies with their help and support. Additionally, getting care, support and help from family and friends is crucial for everyone with depression and those with risk factors for their lifetime.
Reference:
·Hammen, C. Risk factors for depression: Autobiographical comments. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2018;14:1-28. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050817-084811
·Askelund, A., Schweizer, S., Goodyer, I., and van Harmelen, A. (2019). Positive memory specificity is associated with a reduced susceptibility to depression.Natural Human Behavior, 3(3), pp.265-273. doi:10.17863/CAM.23436
·Dinga R, Marquand AF, Veltman DJ, etc. Predicting the natural process of depression from a wide range of clinical, psychological and biological data: a machine learning approach. Translational psychiatry. 2018;8(1). doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0289-1
·Daniel F.Levey et al. Genetic association with the severity of suicide attempts and genetic overlap with major depression. Translational Psychiatry (2019). doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0340-2
·Jaracz J. Overlapping chronic pain and depression: pathophysiology and management. Understand depression. October 2017: 163-174. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-6577-4_12
·Negele A, Kaufhold J, Kallenbach L, Leuzinger-bohleber M. The relationship between childhood trauma and tts and chronic depression in adulthood. Treatment of depression. 2015; 2015: 650804. doi:10.1155/2015/650804
·Yu M, Linn KA, etc. A history of childhood trauma is associated with abnormal brain connections in patients with severe depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2019;116(17):8582-8590. doi:10.1073/pnas.1900801116
·Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB. The link between childhood trauma and depression: Insights from human HPA axis research. Psychological neuroendocrine. 2008;33(6):693-710. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008
·Lund C, Breen A, Flisher AJ et al. Poverty and common mental disorders in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Social Science Medicine. 2010;71(3):517–528. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.04.027
·Ljungqvist I, Topor A, Forssell H, Svensson I, Davidson L. Money and mental illness: a study on the relationship between poverty and serious psychological problems. Community Mental Health J. 2016;52(7):842-50. doi:10.1007/s10597-015-9950-9
·Ali NA,Khoja A. There is increasing evidence of the effect of air pollution on depression. Oxner Magazine. 2019;19(1):4-4. doi:10.31486/toj.19.0011
·Allen TA, Carey BE, McBride C, Bagby RM, DeYoung CG, Quilty LC. The five major aspects of personality interact to predict depression. Personality magazine. 2017;86(4):714-725. doi:10.1111/jopy.12352
·Tafet GE, Idoyaga-Vargas, Abulafia DP, etc. Correlation between cortisol levels and serotonin intake in patients with chronic stress and depression. Cognitive, emotional and behavioral neuroscience. 2001;1(4):388-393.
·Rothenberg W, Hussong A, Chassin L. Intergenerational continuity in a high-conflict family environment: an investigation of mediating pathways for depression. Develop psychology. 2018;54(2):385-396. doi:10.1037/dev0000419
·Li J,Tendeiro JN,Stroebe M. Bereavement guilt: its relationship with complex sadness and depression. International Journal of Psychology. 2018;54(4):454-461. doi:10.1002/ijop.12483
·Prigerson HG, Bierhals AJ, Kasl SV, etc. Complex sadness is a disease different from the depression and anxiety associated with bereavement: a replicate study. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1996;153(11):1484-1486. doi:10.1176/ajp.153.11.1484
·Keles B, McCrae N, Grealish A. Systematic Review: The Effect of Social Media on Depression, Anxiety and Psychological Diseases in Adolescents. Interpretation of J Adolesc Youth. 2019:1-15. doi:10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851
·Ko DT, Hebert PR, Coffey CS, Sedrakyan A, Curtis JP, Krumholz HM. Beta-blocker treatment and symptoms of depression, fatigue and sexual dysfunction. Jama. 2002;288(3):351-7. doi:10.1001/jama.288.3.351
·Pretoria Ε. The effects of corticosteroids, depression and serotonin. Neuroscience Pastor. 2004; 15(2).doi:10.1515/revneuro.2004.15.2.109
·Raison CL, Borisov AS, Majer M, etc. Interferon-α activates the central nervous system inflammation pathway: relationship with monoamines and depression. Biology Psychiatry. 2009;65(4):296-303. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.08.010
·Parsaik AK, Singh B, Murad MH, etc. Statin use and risk of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J affects disorder. 2014;160:62-7. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.11.026
·Witt-Doerring J,Mathew S. Antidepressants and suicide—controversial and possible mechanisms. Neurobiology of depression. 2019:301-313. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813333-0.00027-5
·Davis L, Uezato A, Newell JM, Frazier E. Major depression and comorbid substance use disorders. Current perspectives in psychiatry. 2008;21(1):14-18. doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e3282f32408
·Winter, G., Hart, R., Charlesworth, R., et al. The gut microbiome and depression: What we know and what we need to know. Neuroscience Review. 2018;29(6): 629-643. doi:10.1515/revneuro-2017-0072
For example, anxiety and depression usually occur simultaneously. While different mental health issues may be diagnosed simultaneously and may affect each other, they may need to be treated in different ways.4) Hormone changes
Changes in certain hormones can also increase your risk of depression. For example, hormonal changes associated with menstrual cycles, pregnancy, delivery, and menopause can all lead to depression.
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that about one in nine women in the United States report suffering from postpartum depression . According to a 2010 study, about 4% of fathers reported depression in the first year after their child was born.
Professor Rong said that it is not uncommon for people with thyroid disease to experience depression. Although people with hypothyroidism (also called "hyperthyroidism") are more likely to experience depression symptoms, people with hyperthyroidism (also called "hyperthyroidism") may also experience anxiety and depression.
2, environmental factors
Environmental factors also seem to play a role in the development of depression in some people.
) Early psychological trauma and abuse
One of the more well-studied risk factors for depression is psychological trauma in early childhood. It is well known that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) increase a person's risk of mental and chronic physical illnesses, including depression, throughout his life. Research on ACE is underway, but many studies have confirmed that there is a close link between specific childhood experiences and later years of depression.
ACE is usually divided into three types:
·Abuse: physical, emotional, and sexual;
·Family dysfunction: Domestic violence, divorce, drug use, mentally ill parents, imprisoned parents;
·Neglected: body, emotion.
The number of ACEs in a person is closely related to their risk of mental and physical illness, poverty, and even premature death. Risk increases with the number of ACEs, and people with four or more ACEs are at the highest risk.
Researchers believe that children's abuse may physically change the brain and change its connection structure. Research also shows that neuroendocrine function in people who have experienced high stress in childhood may be changed.
A 2019 study even proposed that the traumatic experience of a child at a age of 0-3 may even change the child's DNA.
2) Poverty
According to a 2015 survey by the American Psychological Association, 64% of American adults said that money is an important source of stress in their lives. People living in poverty are twice as likely to suffer from depression than those living in a well-off or wealthier manner.
Living in poverty not only puts a person at a higher risk of depression, but mental and mental illness can make it harder for someone to escape the cycle of socioeconomic disadvantage if they are unable to work or have no access to support and social services.
Several studies and pilot projects also show that symptoms of depression and anxiety improve when people with mental and mental illness receive financial assistance.
3) Environmental exposure
Where a person lives will also have an impact on his or her mental health in many ways. For example, some people report that they become depressed in certain months of the year, sometimes calling it "seasonal affective disorder (SAD).
There are also studies that include pollution and other environmental exposures as potential factors that cause depression. For example, some studies link lead exposure in childhood to poor mental health in later years. In another study, children who grew up in areas with poor air quality seemed more likely to develop depression or be diagnosed with behavioral disorders at the age of 18.
Your environment can also become an asset for your mental health. Studies have shown that frequent walks in nature can help people cope with depression.
3, Social factors
In addition to biological and environmental factors, a person's personality, stress and conflict experiences, and even social factors such as social media can also affect the risk of depression.
) Personality
Certain personality traits, including low self-esteem, pessimism, neuroticism, self-criticism, or "perfectionist", are associated with more susceptibility to depression and other mental health problems such as anxiety, insomnia, and eating disorders.
Researchers are particularly interested in learning more about personality traits that may make someone less likely to suffer from depression. Resilience, or qualities that make some people more likely to “bounce” from bad experiences, may also be the key to preventing and treating depression.
2) Stress and interpersonal conflicts
Professor Rong said that major life events, including traditional positive events (such as marriage) or negative events (such as unemployment), will cause stress. When we feel stressed, our cortisol levels rise. One theory is that high levels of cortisol (especially when they are elevated over time) can affect serotonin levels.
, especially work-related stress, may be a driver of depression. Losing a job is a common and obvious source of stress, but the work environment can also cause stress, especially when a person feels no support.
Interpersonal conflicts at work or school can also make a person depressed. A 2010 Japanese study linked interpersonal conflicts at work to depression (especially among male employees with higher socioeconomic status); another researchers found that serious conflicts with colleagues or bosses, and/or feeling excluded or neglected at work, can lead to employee depression.
Professor Rong stressed that it is not only adults who experience interpersonal conflicts: children and adolescents may also encounter interpersonal problems at school, which may affect their short-term and long-term physical and mental health.
A 2017 report by the National Center for Education Statistics found that 20% of students aged 12 to 18 said they had been bullied in school. Children who are bullied are more likely to have mental health problems, including anxiety and depression, Professor Rong said. They are also more likely to suffer from physical illnesses, especially headaches and stomachache .
3)Sadness
Sadness is a process that looks and feels like depression, except that it usually follows a specific time frame, starting with an event (such as the death of a loved one) and then gradually moving towards a phase of resolution or acceptance. However, researchers are studying bereavement may have symptoms similar to clinical depression, especially in terms of how long it lasts (a few years instead of months).
Complex sadness, as people often say, seems more likely to lose a loved one in a sudden, unexpected, especially violent way (such as a car accident). Further research is needed to formally define complex grief as a unique condition, but it seems to be associated with depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Stress caused by death, significant loss, or other sources of life stress may be enough to trigger depression in people who already tend to have this condition.
4) Social Media
Although there are few and ongoing research on "social media and depression", there are still some studies that have investigated the impact of social media on mental health, especially on young people.
Several studies have shown that social media use can trigger depression symptoms and anxiety through insecurity, comparison, "fear of missing out" and bullying/harassment.
Overuse of social media can also lead to depression by reducing a person's physical activity level and interactions in real life. A sedentary lifestyle and social isolation are two factors that lead to poor mental health and have nothing to do with social media habits.
4, lifestyle factors
Finally, it is important that factors such as drugs, diet and lifestyle may also affect your risk of depression.
) Prescription drug
It is known that certain drugs may increase a person's risk of depression, including: β-blockers, corticosteroids, interferon-α, statins , etc.
The drugs used to treat mental illnesses and sleep disorders can also worsen or cause depression in some people. People under the age of 25 have an increased risk of increased suicide rates after starting certain antidepressants.
2) Substance use disorder
It is not uncommon for people with mental and mental illness to be "added to" illegal drugs, alcohol and nicotine. However, it is also important to note that, unlike some prescription drugs, illegal drugs can also be frustrating.
When substance use disorders and depression occur simultaneously, it may be difficult to find the right treatment. People often need a diverse team of doctors and mental health experts with experience in substance use disorders to help and support.
If a person needs to quit a substance, sometimes it is safest for them under medical care. Treatment in mental health agencies can also help a person address substance use disorders and depression symptoms that may accompany them.
3) Diet and physical activity
There are many studies showing that adults with mild depression can prevent the onset of major depression by changing their lifestyle; gut microorganisms and diet may also play a role in the development of depression. Some studies have also shown that certain diets, such as the Mediterranean diet, may help older people avoid depression.
On the other hand, a diet high in sugar and trans fat , especially highly processed foods, can promote or aggravate depression, especially when combined with a sedentary lifestyle. One possible reason for this connection is that diets with high levels of food can lead to weight gain. However, just weight gain does not necessarily lead to depression.
Although weight gain may be associated with the onset of depression, it should also be mentioned that eating foods high in sugar or trans fat can disrupt the balance of the intestinal microbiota, the immune system is alerted and releases cytokine that can pass through the blood-brain barrier, resulting in changes in neurochemicals. For example, some cytokines can transfer production from serotonin to glutamate, which when present in excess can lead to cell damage or cell death. When this happens, it can cause anxiety or depression.
As we all know, exercise has many benefits for our physical and mental health, but we are learning more about how exercise can help people with depression control symptoms. Several recent studies confirm previous studies that regular exercise and a healthy diet can not only help people control depression, but also help prevent depression.
Everyone’s experience of depression will be different, and individual factors that lead to the development and degree of depression will also be different. Generally speaking, mental and mental illness is common and treatable, but finding the safest and most effective treatment may take time.
works with professional doctors and psychological counselors and psychotherapists to develop coping strategies with their help and support. Additionally, getting care, support and help from family and friends is crucial for everyone with depression and those with risk factors for their lifetime.
Reference:
·Hammen, C. Risk factors for depression: Autobiographical comments. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2018;14:1-28. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050817-084811
·Askelund, A., Schweizer, S., Goodyer, I., and van Harmelen, A. (2019). Positive memory specificity is associated with a reduced susceptibility to depression.Natural Human Behavior, 3(3), pp.265-273. doi:10.17863/CAM.23436
·Dinga R, Marquand AF, Veltman DJ, etc. Predicting the natural process of depression from a wide range of clinical, psychological and biological data: a machine learning approach. Translational psychiatry. 2018;8(1). doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0289-1
·Daniel F.Levey et al. Genetic association with the severity of suicide attempts and genetic overlap with major depression. Translational Psychiatry (2019). doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0340-2
·Jaracz J. Overlapping chronic pain and depression: pathophysiology and management. Understand depression. October 2017: 163-174. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-6577-4_12
·Negele A, Kaufhold J, Kallenbach L, Leuzinger-bohleber M. The relationship between childhood trauma and tts and chronic depression in adulthood. Treatment of depression. 2015; 2015: 650804. doi:10.1155/2015/650804
·Yu M, Linn KA, etc. A history of childhood trauma is associated with abnormal brain connections in patients with severe depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2019;116(17):8582-8590. doi:10.1073/pnas.1900801116
·Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB. The link between childhood trauma and depression: Insights from human HPA axis research. Psychological neuroendocrine. 2008;33(6):693-710. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008
·Lund C, Breen A, Flisher AJ et al. Poverty and common mental disorders in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Social Science Medicine. 2010;71(3):517–528. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.04.027
·Ljungqvist I, Topor A, Forssell H, Svensson I, Davidson L. Money and mental illness: a study on the relationship between poverty and serious psychological problems. Community Mental Health J. 2016;52(7):842-50. doi:10.1007/s10597-015-9950-9
·Ali NA,Khoja A. There is increasing evidence of the effect of air pollution on depression. Oxner Magazine. 2019;19(1):4-4. doi:10.31486/toj.19.0011
·Allen TA, Carey BE, McBride C, Bagby RM, DeYoung CG, Quilty LC. The five major aspects of personality interact to predict depression. Personality magazine. 2017;86(4):714-725. doi:10.1111/jopy.12352
·Tafet GE, Idoyaga-Vargas, Abulafia DP, etc. Correlation between cortisol levels and serotonin intake in patients with chronic stress and depression. Cognitive, emotional and behavioral neuroscience. 2001;1(4):388-393.
·Rothenberg W, Hussong A, Chassin L. Intergenerational continuity in a high-conflict family environment: an investigation of mediating pathways for depression. Develop psychology. 2018;54(2):385-396. doi:10.1037/dev0000419
·Li J,Tendeiro JN,Stroebe M. Bereavement guilt: its relationship with complex sadness and depression. International Journal of Psychology. 2018;54(4):454-461. doi:10.1002/ijop.12483
·Prigerson HG, Bierhals AJ, Kasl SV, etc. Complex sadness is a disease different from the depression and anxiety associated with bereavement: a replicate study. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1996;153(11):1484-1486. doi:10.1176/ajp.153.11.1484
·Keles B, McCrae N, Grealish A. Systematic Review: The Effect of Social Media on Depression, Anxiety and Psychological Diseases in Adolescents. Interpretation of J Adolesc Youth. 2019:1-15. doi:10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851
·Ko DT, Hebert PR, Coffey CS, Sedrakyan A, Curtis JP, Krumholz HM. Beta-blocker treatment and symptoms of depression, fatigue and sexual dysfunction. Jama. 2002;288(3):351-7. doi:10.1001/jama.288.3.351
·Pretoria Ε. The effects of corticosteroids, depression and serotonin. Neuroscience Pastor. 2004; 15(2).doi:10.1515/revneuro.2004.15.2.109
·Raison CL, Borisov AS, Majer M, etc. Interferon-α activates the central nervous system inflammation pathway: relationship with monoamines and depression. Biology Psychiatry. 2009;65(4):296-303. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.08.010
·Parsaik AK, Singh B, Murad MH, etc. Statin use and risk of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J affects disorder. 2014;160:62-7. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.11.026
·Witt-Doerring J,Mathew S. Antidepressants and suicide—controversial and possible mechanisms. Neurobiology of depression. 2019:301-313. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813333-0.00027-5
·Davis L, Uezato A, Newell JM, Frazier E. Major depression and comorbid substance use disorders. Current perspectives in psychiatry. 2008;21(1):14-18. doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e3282f32408
·Winter, G., Hart, R., Charlesworth, R., et al. The gut microbiome and depression: What we know and what we need to know. Neuroscience Review. 2018;29(6): 629-643. doi:10.1515/revneuro-2017-0072
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