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✪ Kong Yuan | Institute of European Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
[Introduction]
Recently, news came out that NATO will adopt the latest strategic document in ten years, which once again defines Russia as a "threat" and
mentions "the challenge of the rise of China" for the first time. ". It is worth noting that the UK has been the most active in pushing NATO to be tougher on Russia and China. Why did the UK do this?
This article points out that relying on the United States-led NATO on security issues is a two-way strategy for Britain to maintain the balance of power against the Soviet Union (Russia) and Europe after World War II. However, after Brexit, the European security landscape has changed from a trilateral game between Britain, the United States and Europe to a four-way game between the United States, Europe, China and Russia: the United States has turned to the "Indo-Pacific", Europe has proposed "strategic independence", Russia has sought to challenge the West, and China has been stigmatized. As a result of the European threat, Britain's position in the international landscape has become increasingly marginalized. The Russia-Ukraine war was regarded by Britain as an opportunity to reverse the status quo. Therefore, the United Kingdom actively intervened. On the one hand, it suppressed Europe through Latin America and maintained the unity of the transatlantic camp. On the other hand, it tried to drag the world into a bipolar pattern by exaggerating the "China-Russia threat". In the end, it became the one who shaped the new security pattern of Europe. "leader" . In addition, the United Kingdom also proposed
to "prevent" China's security threats to the Indo-Pacific region, and claimed to "ensure that Taiwan has sufficient capabilities to defend itself." These
practices actually echo NATO’s latest stance on China. At present, this NATO summit is paving the way for the establishment of a "global NATO" through "China-Russia binding". By taking the initiative to express its stance and actively intervene, it has become an important opportunity for the UK to lead the reform of NATO and regain its global leadership.
This article originally appeared in the June 2022 issue of "Culture Horizons", originally titled "Reviving Leadership: British Strategy in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict" .
only represents the author’s opinion and is for your reference only.
Reviving leadership:
British strategy in the Russia-Ukraine conflict
Revolving around the Russia-Ukraine conflict, Europe is unfolding a drama of the century, with all parties participating in the strategic game of European security with conflicting demands. Among them, the United Kingdom plays a particularly prominent role. On March 25, Ukrainian President Zelensky pointed out in an interview with The Economist that the United Kingdom did not use the "balancing technique" in the Russia-Ukraine conflict, but stood wholeheartedly on the side of Ukraine and provided assistance to Ukraine. , British Prime Minister Johnson is a model for other countries. On April 9, Johnson appeared on the streets of Kiev . On May 2, Johnson delivered a speech in the Verkhovna Rada (parliament) of Ukraine, becoming the first Western leader to address the Ukrainian parliament since the Russia-Ukraine conflict.
Britain's position is the result of a variety of factors. It cannot be ruled out that Johnson is deliberately creating an image of a "wartime prime minister" to arouse public support and deal with the resignation storm caused by "Partygate". This article points out that Britain's attitude in the Russia-Ukraine conflict is far from being an "improvisational performance" or deliberate hype for sensationalism, but is the result of careful consideration of the European security pattern based on its own strength and security interests. By actively intervening in the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, the UK intends to reverse the four-party game between the United States, Europe, China and Russia. On the one hand, it maintains the unity of the transatlantic camp by suppressing Europe through Latin America; on the other hand, it drags the world down by exaggerating the "China-Russia threat" into a bipolar pattern, thereby reversing the development trend of multipolarity. Britain is trying to use this series of strategies to take the initiative and become the "leader" in shaping Europe's new security pattern.
▍ Britain and the evolution of post-war European security structure
After World War II, the United Kingdom dreamed of building Western Europe into the "third force" between the United States and the Soviet Union through an alliance with France.In 1947, Britain and France signed the "Dunkirk Treaty" to establish a bilateral military alliance; in 1948, Britain, France and the Netherlands signed the "Brussels Treaty" to establish the Brussels Treaty Organization and form an intergovernmental defense alliance. However, due to the decline of British power, the three-power system of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union rapidly decayed into the bipolar system of the United States and the Soviet Union. The United Kingdom realized that it must introduce the United States into the collective defense system of Western Europe. In April 1949, the United States and Western European countries signed the "North Atlantic Treaty" and established the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. In December 1950, the military institutions of the Brussels Treaty Organization were merged into NATO.
The original intention of the establishment of the Brussels Treaty Organization and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization included the dual consideration of "containing the Soviet Union and defending Germany". As the confrontation between the two camps of the United States and the Soviet Union intensified, the United States proposed to rearm Germany to fight the Soviet Union, but France opposed it. In order to cater to the requirements of the United States, France proposed the formation of a European army and the establishment of a European defense community including West Germany . In 1954, the nine countries of Britain, the United States, France, the Netherlands, Benelux, Germany and Italy reached two resolutions on rearming Germany. The first was to absorb Germany into NATO, and the second was to rename the Brussels Treaty Organization the Western European Union and absorb the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy to join. This has allowed Europe to establish at least two defense systems in name only.
However, in actual operation, the military functions of the Western European Alliance have been weakened by NATO, and the NATO mechanism oriented towards the transatlantic geopolitical space has become Europe's primary collective security organization. relied wholeheartedly on the Atlantic Alliance with the United States at its core, supplemented by European organizations that supported traditional intergovernmental cooperation, to maintain Britain's leadership in Europe and to become the two main pillars of the United Kingdom's balance of power against the Soviet Union and Europe. A complete strategy.
In April 1965, the foreign ministers of France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands signed the "Brussels Treaty" and established the European Community , accelerating the process of European economic integration. After the end of the Cold War, France and Germany hoped to accelerate European integration and establish a European Union including a common foreign and defense policy (hereinafter referred to as the "EU"). However, the United Kingdom insisted on using NATO and the Western European Union as its Core Western European defense system. As a compromise, while the EU was established, the Western European Union continued and was given the dual functions of the EU's "defense arm" and NATO's "European pillar". [3] It was not until the Treaty of Lisbon came into effect on December 1, 2009 and the EU's common security and defense policy was formally established that the Western European Union was disbanded and the European security system was transformed into two systems: NATO and the EU's common security and defense mechanism.
In the process of building a common European security and defense system, the United Kingdom has become a leader through proactive intervention and hopes that it will play a role as a complement to NATO. However, with the deepening of European defense integration, the competitive relationship between the EU system and NATO has become prominent, which in turn conflicts with the British position. On June 24, 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union. The United Kingdom and the European Union engaged in several rounds of competition around diplomacy, security, and defense cooperation. In the end, no formal consultation or action mechanism was established on these issues. On December 24, 2020, the British government and the European Commission announced at the same time that they had reached an agreement on the future relationship between the UK and the EU. However, since foreign policy, security and defense cooperation are not within the scope of the agreement, from January 1, 2021, there will be no framework for coordinating foreign policy, security and defense policies between the UK and Europe.
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▍The "four-party game" of European security and the marginalization of the UK
Since 2016, the European security pattern has faced an inflection point, and the trilateral game pattern between Britain, the United States and Europe has shifted towards the United States and Europe. The evolution of the four-way game between China and Russia. The United States is turning to the "Indo-Pacific" and trying to draw Europe into strategic competition with China. Russia has lost patience with integrating into the European security order, sees NATO as a strategic threat, and is intensifying its confrontation with the Western world. China was innocently shot and was stigmatized as a threat to European security. Four forces combine vertically and horizontally , and economic and security interests are intertwined, making the game increasingly stalemate.
First, the United States turns to the "Indo-Pacific". During the Cold War, the United States pursued a "Europe first" strategy and contained the Soviet Union through the NATO system and support for European integration.After the end of the Cold War, the geopolitical center of the United States moved eastward, and it regarded dealing with the rise of China as its biggest strategic task. George W. Bush started this process, but after the outbreak of the "911 Incident", the United States turned to the war on terrorism, delaying the process; after George W. Bush, Obama withdrew its troops from Iraq and retreated behind the scenes on European security affairs, implementing The "Asia-Pacific rebalancing" strategy strengthens military deployment in the Asia-Pacific region; Trump withdraws from the Iran nuclear agreement and withdraws troops from Syria, requiring European countries to bear more defense expenditures, and introduces the "Indo-Pacific strategy" to increase its efforts to strengthen cooperation with China. containment, and even occasionally reveal plans to recognize Russia’s sphere of influence in Europe and achieve “unity to control China”.
After Biden came to power in 2021, he became more determined to evacuate the Middle East and even evacuated from Afghanistan without consulting with European allies; following the Trump administration's "Indo-Pacific Strategy", through the United States, Japan and Australia India established the "Quadrilateral Security Dialogue" and the "Trilateral Security Partnership" between the United States, Britain and Australia, and formed an anti-China small group. Biden advocates values diplomacy and alliance diplomacy, and vigorously repairs the European and American relations damaged by Trump. However, in order to avoid the strategic consumption caused by "two-front warfare", the United States will require that it not withdraw from Europe and NATO. European allies are increasing defense spending while dragging them into strategic competition with China.. Europe is thus caught in a dilemma. On the one hand, it is worried that the United States will pay more attention to European security because of its focus on China. On the other hand, it is worried that it will lose its strategic importance to the United States because its China policy is inconsistent with the United States.
Second, Europe proposes "strategic independence." Concerns about the United States' withdrawal from Europe have amplified Europe's strategic anxiety, and the British vote to leave the European Union has eliminated obstacles to strengthening the EU's defense construction. As a result, the defense plan with France and Germany as the axis and the defense capacity building of EU institutions as the core was accelerated. On June 28, 2016, the European Union issued the "EU Global Strategy" document, proposing the concept of "strategic autonomy" and pointing out that soft power is not enough to cope with this divided world, and the EU needs to strengthen the construction of a security community. In November 2016, EU High Representative Mogherini proposed the implementation plan of the "EU Global Strategy", which listed effective response to external conflicts and crises, strengthening partner capacity building, and protecting the EU and its citizens as strategic priorities.
To achieve these goals, the EU has launched a number of security and defense initiatives. In June 2018, the defense ministers of nine EU countries signed a letter of intent for the EU intervention initiative, planning to form an independent European army; on September 10, 2019, they proposed to create a "geopolitical committee" and declared that the EU would be built into a military by 2025. A true defense alliance; on March 21, 2022, the "Strategic Compass" action plan was adopted, aiming to coordinate the different strategic demands of member states and develop a common EU strategic culture, stipulating that the EU will establish a rapid response force of up to 5,000 people , regularly conduct live-fire exercises on land and at sea, taking a solid step towards building a mutual defense alliance.
Third, Russia seeks to challenge the West. Russia has been trying to build a European security system that can accommodate itself, and has tried to integrate into the European security system in different ways. In 1994, Russia proposed the concept of "Pan-European Partnership" and hoped to reform the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (hereinafter referred to as the "OSCE") into the core institution of European security and coordinate European military cooperation. After that, Russia repeatedly used the OSCE to express its position on building a new European security system, and pushed the OSCE to adopt the European Security Charter in 1999, proposing the principle of indivisibility of security (countries should not strengthen their own security at the expense of the security of other countries). ).
After the EU launched its security and defense mechanism in 1999, Russia tried to strengthen security cooperation with the EU. In addition, Russia has also tried to strengthen security cooperation with NATO and even hoped to seek membership of NATO. However, these gestures of goodwill failed to stop NATO's eastward expansion of . In early 2008, US President Bush expressed support for Ukraine and Georgia to join NATO, which touched Russia's bottom line and triggered the Russia-Georgia war. In 2014, the pro-Russian regime in Ukraine collapsed, triggering the Crimea incident.Since then, NATO has strengthened its deterrence against Russia through military exercises and troop rotations in Central and Eastern Europe, and the deployment of the missile defense system . Russia has listed NATO's military buildup near the border as the number one military threat. The confrontation between the two sides has intensified and become tense. potential.
At the same time, , since 2016, there has been an imbalance within and outside the US and Western systems, and there is a possibility that the US hegemonic system will loosen. Russia realizes that this is a good opportunity to challenge the Western hegemonic system. To this end, Russia, on the one hand, joins hands with China to build a new international relations system, and on the other hand, it integrates its own security goals into broader ideological goals, promotes the shortcomings of capitalism, and reveals the crisis of the free international system. , support conservative forces and movements within the Western world, and form a civilizational form that can challenge the Western value system.
Fourth, China is stigmatized as a threat to Europe. Because China and Europe are far apart, China does not pose a geopolitical threat to Europe. The Chinese government has always attached great importance to China-EU relations, regards Europe as an important pole in international politics, and expects Europe to get rid of its dependence on the United States and play an independent role. As the two major forces maintaining world peace, the two major markets promoting common development, and the two major civilizations promoting human progress, if China and the EU can carry out dialogue and cooperation on the basis of mutual respect, mutual benefit and win-win results, it will provide more opportunities for the turbulent world situation. stabilizing factors.
However, affected by the trend of "pan-securitization", Europe's perception of China has tended to be negative. China's trade and investment in Europe are regarded as "economic aggression" against Europe, and China-EU scientific research and technology cooperation is regarded as "theft of intellectual property rights". China Normal people-to-people exchanges in Europe are regarded as "political infiltration", China's "Belt and Road" initiative is stigmatized as a tool to realize China's geopolitical ambitions, and the cooperation mechanism between China and Central and Eastern European countries is stigmatized as dividing Europe. In March 2019, the EU issued its China strategic document "Europe-China Strategic Outlook", which positioned China as a triple positioning partner, competitor and institutional rival. It also successively introduced a foreign investment security review mechanism, a 5G network security toolbox, and a foreign Subsidy review mechanism, government procurement mechanism, anti-economic coercion mechanism, etc., increase trade and investment protection, and increase pressure on issues related to Xinjiang, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.
After Biden came to power, the United States and Europe established a Trade and Technology Council to increase coordination in areas such as technology, climate, and supply chain security. In order to cooperate with the US Indo-Pacific strategy, on September 16, 2021, the European Commission released the "Indo-Pacific Cooperation Strategy" document to express concerns about security threats in the Indo-Pacific region. After the conflict between Russia and Ukraine broke out, Europe's doubts about Sino-Russian collaboration deepened. EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Borrell accused China of supporting sovereignty and territorial integrity on the surface, but actually pursuing "pro-Russian neutrality" (pro- Russian neutrality) attitude. The divergent positions between China and Europe on the Russia-Ukraine conflict will deepen the imbalance between China and Europe in economy, politics, and ideology, which will undoubtedly further hinder the establishment of strategic mutual trust between China and Europe, and then promote Europe to bind China and Russia.
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▍Britain regains its leadership through the Russia-Ukraine conflict
After Brexit, the UK’s influence on Europe has declined and it has been marginalized in the international landscape. Anxiety is increasing. In order to eliminate people's worries and misunderstandings, the then British Prime Minister Theresa May proposed a new plan to build a "Global Britain" to demonstrate its strategic ambitions for aggressive expansion. After Johnson took office as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 2019, he promoted the release of "Global Britain in the Age of Competition: A Comprehensive Assessment Report on British Defense, Security, Development and Foreign Policy" (hereinafter referred to as the "Comprehensive Assessment") and planned an ambitious action plan. After the conflict between Russia and Ukraine broke out, the British government took a good opportunity to actively shape the European security structure in its favor through multi-faceted intervention.
First, strengthen NATO leadership.'s "Comprehensive Assessment" points out that NATO is the foundation of the UK's collective security in the Euro-Atlantic region and that Russia is the "most serious threat" to UK security. This means that the UK regards the NATO mechanism as the primary means of strategic communication with Europe and the United States. On the other hand, in order to respond to Russian security threats, the UK continues to increase its security investment in the Baltic Sea, Balkans, Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea.
After the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, in order to strengthen the protection of NATO's southeastern and northeastern sea and airspace, the United Kingdom further strengthened its military deployment in Estonia and other places. The 2014 NATO Summit released the NATO initiative to establish a transnational Joint Expeditionary Force. The United Kingdom launched a joint expeditionary force formation led by itself, consisting of troops from 10 Scandinavian and Nordic countries. On March 15, the UK hosted the Joint Expeditionary Force Leaders' Summit and announced the strengthening of joint exercises in the North Atlantic and Baltic Sea regions, and the establishment of a regional headquarters in the Baltic Sea through the construction of nodes between Latvia, Lithuania and London. , Strengthen the coordinated combat capabilities of the Joint Expeditionary Force.
Second, dismantle Europe’s “strategic independence”. Due to Brexit, it lost the qualification to participate in the EU's common diplomatic, security and defense mechanism. The UK turned to promoting bilateral cooperation with European countries, thus continuously eroding the foundation of the EU's common security mechanism. Since 2021, the UK has signed a statement of intent to strengthen cooperation with Estonia, signed a joint statement with Germany, Belgium, Latvia, and Denmark, and signed a bilateral framework with Greece. Coupled with the previously signed cooperation treaties between Britain, France and Britain, Britain's diplomatic, defense and security cooperation with European countries has basically taken shape.
Due to the important role of Poland and Ukraine in dealing with the Russian threat, the British government has been increasing its support for both countries, especially Ukraine. After the Crimea incident in 2014, the United Kingdom launched "Operation Orbital" (Operation Orbital) to train Ukrainian soldiers. So far, 22,000 Ukrainian soldiers have been trained; the United Kingdom also promised to help Ukraine rebuild its navy. On June 23, 2021, the two sides signed the " Implementing the Memorandum, jointly promote the construction of projects to strengthen the capabilities of the Ukrainian Navy, including the construction of new naval platforms and defensive ship-based weapons, training of Ukrainian naval personnel, the establishment of new naval bases, and the purchase of two Sandown-class minesweepers; On January 21, 2022, the United Kingdom announced that it would establish a new British-Polish-Ukrainian trilateral organization, indicating that in addition to multilateral and bilateral mechanisms such as NATO, the United Kingdom also regards "minilateral" mechanisms as an important means to strengthen European security. .
Third, make sure Russia fails. As the war progressed, the British government began to clearly regard " Putin failure" as a strategic goal. On April 27, 2022, British Foreign Secretary Liz Truss pointed out that "the war in Ukraine is a war for each of us." This means that the UK's understanding of the nature of the Russia-Ukraine conflict has undergone a qualitative change. Although it did not send large-scale troops to participate in the war, Britain was actually deeply and extensively involved in the Russian-Ukrainian conflict in other forms.
First, we launched an economic war through economic assistance to Ukraine and economic sanctions against Russia. On April 11, 2019, the British Parliament passed the "Russian Sanctions Regulations." The regulations stipulate that the British government will impose a property freeze on persons found to be involved in destabilizing Ukraine or undermining or threatening Ukraine's territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence. After the conflict between Russia and Ukraine escalated, the British Parliament passed several amendments to expand the scope of sanctions to entities affiliated with the Russian government, as well as enterprises with economic and strategic significance to the Russian government and their owners, directors and trustees, and the industries involved. Includes chemicals, defence, extractive industries, information and communications technology and financial services. The British government hopes that through this "the most powerful" sanctions against Russia in history, it will demonstrate the UK's firm support for Ukraine's sovereignty and self-determination and ensure that those who have close dealings with Russia have "nowhere to hide."
Before and after the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the British government promised to provide Ukraine with approximately 395 million pounds of development assistance, of which 100 million pounds of three-year aid was used to support Ukraine's energy independence, 220 million pounds was used to respond to humanitarian crises, and approximately 74 million pounds Used to support Ukrainian public sector operations. In addition, the British government also promised to provide a guarantee of US$1 billion for Ukraine's loan projects applied for from multilateral development banks; on February 2, 2022, the UK launched the establishment of the Ukraine Recovery Fund to provide financial support for Ukraine's economic development, public sector operations and energy Provide support independently; on March 8, 2022, the International Ukraine Support Group was launched to provide more long-term political, humanitarian, economic and defense support to Ukraine; in order to help Ukraine rebuild, the British government is also determined to Develop a new Marshall Plan with the US, EU and other partners.
Secondly, it continues to escalate and increase its military assistance to Ukraine. On January 18, 2022, the United Kingdom announced that it would provide 2,000 NLAWS anti-tank missiles to Ukraine, becoming "the first European country to begin providing lethal assistance to Ukraine"; on March 9, the British Defense Secretary disclosed that it has provided Ukraine with 2,000 NLAWS anti-tank missiles so far. Provide 3,615 NLAWS missiles, and will provide a small amount of "Javelin" anti-tank missiles and "Starlight" man-portable air defense missiles; during the NATO summit on March 24, British Prime Minister Johnson announced that it will provide Ukraine with an additional 6,000 missiles . Provide financial support of 25 million pounds to the Ukrainian military to pay the wages of Ukrainian soldiers, pilots and police, and ensure that the Ukrainian armed forces are equipped with high-quality equipment.
On April 8, the United Kingdom announced a new military assistance plan worth more than 100 million pounds to provide high-end military equipment to Ukraine; on April 9, British Prime Minister Johnson visited Kiev and announced the provision of an additional 120 anti-aircraft "Storm" vehicles to Ukraine. missile launch vehicles and anti-ship missiles to greatly improve the short-range air defense capabilities of the Ukrainian army to deal with Russian warships bombing Ukrainian cities; on April 23, the British Defense Minister stated that he would consider providing Poland with the Challenger 2 main battle tank . In order to fill the vacancy in Poland's supply of T-72 main battle tanks to Ukraine; on April 26, the British Foreign Secretary claimed that the era of distinguishing between defensive weapons and offensive weapons has passed, which means that the United Kingdom will be more responsible for Ukraine in the future. We will be more bold and decisive in terms of military aid.
Once again, increase the deployment of information warfare to deal with "hybrid threats." With the advent of the "post-truth" era, the British government will counter Russian disinformation as one of its combat methods. Long before Russia launched a special military operation against Ukraine, the British government took the initiative to leak secrets to counter the various " smokescreens " spread by Russia that had no intention of launching a war. For the first time, the British Ministry of Defense released the Russian military buildup on Twitter and analyzed possible combat routes and plans.
In late February, British Foreign Secretary Truss established a government information center to be responsible for information warfare against Russia. The agency uses advertising companies to spread the British position on Russian social media platforms such as VKontakte, and uses "pre-bunking" methods to counter disinformation campaigns. After Russia launched a special military operation against Ukraine, the British Ministry of Defense's intelligence disclosure became "daily update", announcing Russian military deployment information and action plans. By not releasing information about Ukrainian losses, military defeats, or potential war crimes, such disclosures could easily mislead the public about the war. On April 13, a spokesman for the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs accused Ukraine of publishing false accusations against Russia by packaging the massacre "under the leadership of Britain's experienced intelligence agencies." This means that the United Kingdom may be deeply involved in Ukraine's propaganda offensive against Russia. middle.
Finally, it will jointly attack China. In March 2021, the United Kingdom established a "challenge, competition, and cooperation" cooperation framework with China. British Prime Minister Johnson emphasized that this was a prudent choice based on the judgment of British national interests and balancing economic, security and values factors. The British government has proposed a "Eurasian security concept", tilted towards the "Indo-Pacific", and changed the traditional geostrategic focus on the Euro-Atlantic region. This constitutes an important adjustment to the British global strategy.After the conflict between Russia and Ukraine broke out, the United Kingdom tried its best to exaggerate China's security threat to Europe, pointing out that China did not condemn Russia's actions but instead deepened its trade with Russia. In addition, China tried to coerce Lithuania and criticized NATO's eastward expansion policy; on the other hand, China tried to coerce Lithuania and criticized NATO's eastward expansion policy; On the one hand, it proposed to "prevent" China's security threats to the Indo-Pacific region and claimed to "ensure that Taiwan has sufficient capabilities to defend itself."
These actions are actually a response to NATO’s latest stance on China. The "NATO 2030 Agenda Report" released on November 25, 2020 stated: "Although China does not pose a direct military threat to the Euro-Atlantic region like Russia, it is expanding its military influence into the Atlantic, Mediterranean and Arctic, Deepening defense relations with Russia and developing global reach, extensive space-based capabilities, and a larger nuclear arsenal", "In the long term, China is increasingly likely to project military power around the world, including in Europe - Atlantic Region”. In June 2022, the NATO summit will adopt a new strategic concept and pave the way for the construction of a "global NATO" through "China-Russia binding", which will constitute an important strategic adjustment. By taking the initiative and actively intervening, it becomes an important opportunity for the UK to seize the opportunity and lead the reform of NATO.
This article originally appeared in the June 2022 issue of "Culture Perspective", originally titled "Reviving Leadership: British Strategy in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict". welcomes personal sharing. For media reprinting, please contact the copyright owner.
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