From the Nebchu Treaty to the Second Opium War, the Qing Dynasty accumulated a lot of knowledge about Russia through diplomacy, economy and trade and other aspects.

From before and after Nebuchu Treaty to Second Opium War , Qing Dynasty has accumulated a lot of knowledge about Russia through diplomacy, economy and trade and other aspects. In the early 18th century, the Qing Dynasty's knowledge about Russia began to form. By the mid-18th century, the compilation of a series of official classics of the Qianlong Dynasty showed that the Qing Dynasty had basically formed official knowledge about Russia based on the Treaty of Nebchu and the Chaktu trade and diplomatic system. In the next 100 years, the official knowledge of the Qing Dynasty on Russia has been improved, and its masterpiece was the work "Shuofang Beicheng", which represents the highest level of "Russian Studies" in the Qing Dynasty. However, from the Qianlong Dynasty to the Second Opium War, the core of Russian knowledge officially led by the Qing Dynasty gradually solidified into the understanding of the Chaktu trade and diplomatic system. On the one hand, Qing Dynasty officials and scholars continued to accumulate and organize knowledge about Chaktu , but on the other hand, they ignored more abundant knowledge about Russia itself. Finally, in the face of the new situation of Sino-Russia relations that began in the 1860s, the refined "Russian studies" in the Qianlong, Jiaqing, Dao and Xianyang period fell behind the times.

In 1887 AD, the Qing Dynasty official Miao Yousun went to Russia for two years and traveled more than 70,000 miles. He finally wrote the "Compilation of Russian Travel", which was published by Shanghai Xiuwen Bookstore in 1889. The "Russian Tour Compilation" includes contents such as verification, historical material translation, diary, etc. It is particularly unique. It collects specific statistical data such as population, army deployment, naval ships, , etc. in various parts of Russia, which is beyond the reach of previous generations. In the preface, Miao Yousun proudly declared that this book "All the Russian territory's mountains and rivers are dangerous, political gains and losses, treasury is poor, military strength is thick, property is a pity, household registration is small, customs are beautiful, and all are flawed." [1] The "Russian Travel Compilation" has 12 volumes, Volume 1 records the history of Russia's conquest of Siberia and Central Asia, which involves the content of modern Russian history itself.

To a certain extent, "Russian Travel Compilation" is the earliest Chinese in the Qing Dynasty to introduce the national conditions and appearance of the Russian Empire since the modernization of the Russian Empire, and has raised the level of understanding of Russia in the Qing Dynasty's Chinese knowledge community to a new level. At the beginning of the "Russian Travel Compilation", Miao Yousun reviewed the Chinese works about Russia before his book. Starting from "Ji Fangwai Ji" written by Ai Ruluo, a missionary in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, it was published to the historical narratives of official compilation of Russia in various dynasties in the Qing Dynasty. Finally, it concluded that "and the compilation of He Qiutao is the most profound and extensive" [2], and regarded He Qiutao's "Shuo Fang Beicheng" as the most profound and extensive one of the Qing Dynasty's works on Russia that he could see. However, in the view of the Miao's who visited Russia in person, the works of predecessors, including "Shuofang Beicheng", which compiled the great achievements of Russian knowledge, failed to fully explain Russia's national conditions, because "a hundred hearing is better than one sight than one sight, and a cheap stance is better than a sight; a visual image is worse than to observe the form, and the new purpose of verifying the effect." [3] Miao Yousun's words were not false statements to raise his value. Some of his works were made by Emperors of the Qing Dynasty, and some were documents highly recognized by the court. As a "Guangxu Jinshi"[4], Miao Yousun went to Russia to be a missionary. He was shortly after he was admitted to the Jinshi in 1886 and entered the official career. He did not deliberately make rebellious remarks. At the same time, judging from the many misunderstandings of Russian history and even Russian in the "Russian Travel Compilation", his Western learning level and knowledge of the external world are not higher than those pioneers who opened their eyes to the world through reading and self-examination in the Daoxian era, including He Qiutao. Therefore, Miao's feelings raised an important question here. The Qing Dynasty had been dealing with Russia for so many years since the Shunzhi Dynasty, and its writings and knowledge about Russia were not without accumulation. Why did Miao Yousun, who was on a mission to Russia in the late Qing Dynasty, suddenly felt that all the knowledge about Russia accumulated by the Qing Dynasty had shortcomings?

In the historical works of Chinese and Russian relations by domestic and foreign scholars, the focus is often on the political, economic and cultural relations between China and Russia. The main concern in the cultural relations between China and Russia is the mutual influence of cultural elements and the construction of each other's national image, especially the Chinese view of Russia and Russian image in the Qing Dynasty.Chinese and foreign scholars have not discussed much about the accumulation of Russian knowledge in the Qing Dynasty from the Treaty of Nebchu to the Second Opium War. Japanese scholar Kinichi Yoshida proposed in "History of Relationships in Modern Luqing" that the knowledge level of "Shuofang Beicheng" has made little progress compared to "Exotic Records", which of course is not completely correct. The book "A Brief History of Sino-Russia Relations" by Chinese scholar Wang Xilong also discussed how knowledge about Russia entered the Qing Dynasty before the Second Opium War, but there are many points in it.

To this day, academic circles still have few analyses on the genealogy, structure and development process of Russian knowledge in the Qing Dynasty. This article attempts to analyze how the Chinese people's knowledge about Russia has accumulated from the signing of the Treaty of Nebchu to the Second Opium War, and how it has solidified when they entered the modern world. From the signing of the Treaty of Nebchu, to the conclusion of the Caktu City in 1727, to the Second Opium War, China and Russia have maintained long-term exchanges. During the Second Opium War, there were military exchanges such as the training of Chuktu. In short, the Qing Dynasty had much more knowledge of Russia than other countries. However, why did the "Shuofang Beicheng", a masterpiece of Russian knowledge in the 1860s, even be considered by later generations to be incomplete enough after being published? To explore this answer, we need to think about why the Qing Dynasty's knowledge about Russia lags behind in the 1860s, and we need to consider the overall context of the development of the Qing Dynasty's knowledge about Russia.

1. From the Treaty of Nebchu to the city of Chikto, the growth of knowledge about Russia in the Qing Dynasty 117th century, Russia became an unexpected neighbor of China at an extremely rapid expansion rate. The two countries' desire to resolve border wars in the 1770s and 1780s and their responses to bilateral exchange demands eventually formed the negotiation topic and text content of the Treaty of Nebchu. With the signing of the Treaty of Nebchu, the Qing Dynasty began to summarize the knowledge gained during negotiations and wars on the northeastern border in the 1650s and 1980s. After the signing of the Treaty of Nebchu, the initial knowledge about Russia based on the Treaty of Nebchu and its predecessors was basically finalized.

For a long time in the Qing Dynasty, the contract was just a "demarcation" and "contracting" in the impression of emperors and officials and scholars. Today's scholars still think about this issue from the perspective of direct related negotiations such as military, geographical surveying and mapping, diplomacy, etc., but the impact of the Treaty of Nebchu on the Qing people's knowledge about Russia may be greater than we imagined. [6] The Treaty of Nebchu built the basic form of exchanges between the two countries, shaped the deep-rooted view of Russia by the Qing Dynasty, and became a standard of Russian knowledge. In a sense, the relevant knowledge brought by the Treaty of Nebchu was the main source of the Qing Dynasty's cognition about Russia before the late Qing Dynasty.

There are many documents related to the Treaty of Nebchu. For example, it is recorded that the Qing Dynasty diplomatic and military archives began in the 9th year of Shunzhi (1652) Battle of Uzara Village and the signing of the Treaty of Nebchu. Documents directly related to the Nibchu Treaty process include the "Issues of the Envoy to Oros" and "Diary of the Outing of the Frontier" which recorded the "Issues of the Envoy to the Ultimate" and "Diary of the Outing of the Frontier" which recorded the "Diary of the Envoy to the Envoy" which recorded the "Diary of the Envoy to the Frontier" which discussed the aftermath issues such as demarcation of the unannounced boundaries after the Nibchu Treaty in 1695. [7] They basically constituted the Qing Dynasty's knowledge about Russia around the Treaty of Nebchu, including information on the Sino-Russian border situation, Russia's geography, ethnic groups, customs and other information. In summary, these knowledge basically includes the following aspects: First, a summary of the knowledge about China-Russia diplomatic exchanges since Baykov entered China and the border wars that began in the Heilongjiang Basin conflict in the decade of Shunzhi, which belongs to the category of the early history of China-Russia relations. Second, discussion on the influence and role of Mongolian Plateau tribes including the northernmost tribes of the Arukorqin tribes (Maoming'an, Urat ), as well as Barhu , Khalkha, and Erut tribes in China-Russia relations. Third, some basic introduction to Russian cultural national conditions.Fourth, a record of the normalization of Sino-Russia relations after the Treaty of Nebchu. This knowledge was formed earlier, but documents such as "The Strategy for Pacifying Rakshasa", "The Itinerary of the Envoys", and "The Diary of the Purchase of the League" were published and presented to officials and scholars, which was generally the case since the 19th century.

However, the accumulation of knowledge about Russia in the Qing Dynasty did not stagnate because of this. In the more than thirty years after the signing of the Treaty of Nebchu, the closeness of Sino-Russia exchanges reached a new level, and what was produced was another improvement in the level of understanding of Russian knowledge. According to Russian scholar Da Qiusheng, from the early 17th century to 1727 was the development stage of Sino-Russia exchanges, and from 1727 to the Second Opium War was an extremely positive stage of exchanges. [8] Before the signing of the Treaty of Chuktu, two other works on Sino-Russia relations and Russia's national conditions were published almost at the same time. One is "Exotic Records" by Tulichen , and the other is "Longsha Jiluo". The 1717 "Exotic Record" is also of great significance in the Forest of World Expedition Reports. The important thing about "The Book of Foreign Land" is that it completely replaces the outdated knowledge of "The Book of the Wisdom". The knowledge of Russia (Mosgow Weiya) in Chinese "Journal of the World" still stayed before 1653. [9] "Exotic Records" promotes China's knowledge about Russia to the current situation, such as the Russian-Turkish War that occurred at that time, , Russian-Swiss War . What can best illustrate the immediacy of "Exotic Records" is the situation of Russia's provinces. The names of "Eight Paths" it lists reflect the fact that when Peter I established the eight provinces (губерния) in 1712. The knowledge defined in "Exotic Records" also includes the following aspects: the Russian-Swiss War, the Turkut tribe in Russia, and the provincial administrative division pattern after the reform represented by the "Eight Great Scots".

and "Exotic Records" were written in at least 1717. "Longsha Jilu" also provides important information on Sino-Russia exchanges. "Longsha Jilu" mentions the spread of Russian material culture, mentions the situation of border officers and soldiers' trade, and mentions the customs and clothing of some Russians. What is particularly interesting is the following passage: "Russia... has been around for more than 1,710 years. Yuan Taizu and his brother shared the land. His brother destroyed Russia and conferred it as Chahan Khan . Bai was Chahan, and Khan could be called Khan, and the country was still called... His king The capital is Tobos. "[10]

1587, Russia built the Topolsk Fortress near Kashrek, the old capital of the Siberian Khanate, . The "Siberian Tsarist State" that once existed in history was the upgrade and rename of Siberian Province from 1764 to 1782 after Katherine II succeeded to the throne. However, in the early chronicles, the Cossacks also used the "tsarist state of Siberia" to call the Siberian Khanate. At that time, the Cossack also knew that Kashrek was the capital of the Siberian Khan and called it the Siberian city. [12] The author of "Longsha Jilu" is undoubtedly a 3 dynasty of the Kangxi . It is unknown how to master this knowledge for the time being, but it is certain that he may have learned a rough understanding of the relationship between Russia and the Golden Horde through some oral channels.

In the past decade after Turichen , there were also mantai , tushi, Dexin and others who went to Russia to migrate. Among them, tushi and Dexin even arrived in Moscow, the old capital of Russia. However, these people may not have that much direct knowledge about Russia, especially the knowledge that enters the Chinese system is even less. [13] Man Tai's experience basically did not enter the Chinese context in the Qing Dynasty. Because of the excavation of Chen Kangqi, a late Qing literati, he only left a note in his notes: "In the seventh year of Yongzheng, he was resigned as the assistant minister of the Cangchang. He was awarded the title of assistant minister of Russia for ten years and was sent back to Russia for ten years"[14].

In short, from the Treaty of Nebchu to the Cialis of Chiktu, the knowledge accumulated by the Qing Dynasty on Russia and China-Russia relations was passed down because of the fact that some of the contents in "Exotic Records" and "Longsha Jilu" were passed down because of the fact that these two works were widely circulated, many other things were left behind. In the later official knowledge structure, "The Record of Exotics" and "The Record of Longsha" became the basic sources of knowledge about Russia in the Qing Dynasty from 1689 to 1727.

2. The Qianlong Dynasty China on the official level of Russian knowledge

The Treaty of Nebuchu did not directly solve specific issues such as cultural, economic, political exchanges and border management. They were mainly resolved after the signing of the Chuktu City Agreement. In the 20 to 30 years after the signing of the Treaty of Chukto, relations between China and Russia were relatively stable. In 1751, Emperor Qianlong organized the compilation of the "Imperial Qing Duty Map". In this document on the relationship between the Qing Dynasty and neighboring countries, it basically reflects the court's understanding of Russia and its positioning of China-Russia relations in the middle and early Qing Dynasty. There are two lines in the first poem of the Manchu and Chinese volume of "The Emperor Qing Dynasty's tribute": "Who can write a carriage outside the book? The square toe and round skull are all close to each other (daci toktobuha tachiyan kooli bewe daharakū ome mutere, dahaha ele tulergi aiman i urseuhei hargašajiha)"[15], which shows that Emperor Qianlong's mentality of "understanding" and "end of knowledge" on external knowledge. Judging from the description of other European countries by the "Imperial Qing Dynasty's Tribute Map", 1700 basically became a watershed in the Qing Dynasty's official understanding of foreign situations. [16]

Two short encyclopedias of "Erosian officials and Erosians" in "Imperial Qing tribute map" are some of the few words that comprehensively introduced about Russia in the early Qing Dynasty. Therefore, in the context of the existing literature, two short entries on Russia in the "Imperial Qing Dynasty's tribute map" can be regarded as a summary of the Qing Dynasty's information obtained from its early exchanges with Russia. The classification of the two items "Eros Yi official" and "Eros Yi official" is slightly different from other items in the "Imperial Qing tribute map". For example, the information about "Eight Roads" of Eros is included in the "Eight Roads" of "Eros" but not the "Eros Yi official", and "trade" is included in the "Eros Yi official".

"Orosiers" describes Russia's geography and folk customs at a glance, and the Manchu and Chinese characters are all taken from "Exotic Records". "The Imperial Qing Dynasty's Tribute" quotes the incorrect metaphor of the Russian "Shang Futu" in "The Record of Exotics", but does not quote Tulichen's correct understanding of Orthodoxism being close to Catholicism in "The Record of Exotics". At a glance, the "Erossian officials" put aside the mistakes of starting with Russian history and tribe origin, the remaining sentences of "This dynasty received tribute in the 15th year of Kangxi" and "The 28th year of sending the inner ministers Soetu and his envoy Feiyaoduoluo set the boundary with Geerbiqi River ", which are the same as the "State of Pacifying Rakshasa" "In the 15th year of Kangxi, Eroschahan Khan sent envoy Niguo to come and other places to pay tribute" [17] "Send officials to establish a lord in the Gerbiji River, and the inner ministers Soetu and others arrived in the city of Nibuchu and sent the Ferbilikshasa meeting" [18]. The descriptions of "Erosian official" and "Erosian official wife" are not found in other Qing Dynasty documents. Triangle hat and sword outfit were popular after Peter I reformed "introduced French clothing into Russia" [19]. This knowledge should come from the experience of direct interactions with Russia in the Qing Dynasty. When the Longsha Jiluo describes the scene of the soldiers in the Ergun River and the Russian officers and soldiers, the description of the costumes of Russian officers also has similarities, which is called "As soon as the autumn comes, Russia comes to market with each other... The official houses are all woven and wrinkled, and the neck is made of it, with a bald sleeve. The crown is about a foot high, and the top is square and the bottom is square." [20] The first version of "The Imperial Qing Dynasty's Tribute Picture" basically reflects the knowledge of the Qing Dynasty on Russia in the early 18th century represented by "Exotic Records" and "Longsha Records", and is also an official summary of the Qing Dynasty's Russian knowledge during this period.

was around 1756, and the initial Chinese version of "Lifanyuan Rules" was compiled. The Qianlong Dynasty's "Lifanyuan Rules" is a compilation of cases, just like other official books of the law. In "The Laws of the Laws of the Laws of the House of Qianlong's Inner Mansion", some of the terms in the "Eros mutual market" are excerpted from the "Eros mutual market" in "Qianlong's Inner Mansion" which originally had no Chinese, such as the establishment of the "Eros Pavilion", the Orthodox preaching group and its shift rules. Since the signing of the Chuktu City Agreement in 1727, a basic exchange model represented by the Chuktu trade between China and Russia has formed a basic exchange model represented by the "Chaktu System". We can call it the "Chaktu System".From 1727 to 1858 when the Sino-Russia Tianjin Treaty signed the , the Chuktu system was the core content of China-Russia relations. The compilation of "The Laws of the Law of the Liberation of the Qianlong Inner Mansion" has made a preliminary official review of this knowledge, and has pushed the relevant knowledge under the Chaktu system, including the Chaktu trade and the Russian Orthodox Evangelism in China, into the vision of officials and scholars.

From "The Imperial Qing Dynasty's Tribute Picture" to "The Lifan Yuan Rules", the knowledge about Russia accumulated before 1727, and the knowledge about Russia formed under the Chiktor system after 1727 were summarized at the official level of the Qing Dynasty. In some other documents of the Qianlong Dynasty, Volume 100 of the "Biography of the Merits of the Princes and Princes of the Imperial Decree of Mongolians" summarizes the knowledge of "The Record of the Foreign Land"; Volume 139 of the "General Record of the Eight Banners of the Imperial Decree" Volume 139 of the "General Record of the Imperial Decree of the Eight Banners" Sabusu of the Volume 19 of the People's Records, Volume 165, and Pengchun of the People's Records, are basically similar to the content of "The Strategy for Palm of Rakshasa".

The "Imperially-Decreed Qing Dynasty" and "Imperially-Decreed Qing Dynasty" were completed in 1764 (the Jiashen year). At this time, China-Russia relations are under the test of the Junggar issue and the Chaktu trade dispute. In the Qianlong Dynasty's "Meetings" and "Meetings' Rules" included in the Siku Quanshu, the knowledge about Russia basically ended with the conclusion of the Treaty of Chaktu. Although " The Unification of the Qing Dynasty " has been compiled and added many times from the early Qianlong period to the later period, the descriptions about Russia in general are basically derived from the relevant content of "The Strategy for Pacifying Rakshasa" and excerpts about Russian history and geography in "Exotic Records". Among the documents included in the of the Siku Quanshu, only the "Urchuangqing Literature Collection" has increased the few Sino-Russian negotiation records after the 22nd year of Qianlong because it was compiled later.

The relative stagnation of Russian knowledge in the Chinese knowledge system during the Qianlong period does not mean that there is no new increase in knowledge about Russia by officials and scholars who are familiar with Chinese. During the Qianlong period, the Chinese people's grasp of Russian intelligence may not be as explicitly revealed in Chinese literature. In the Qianlong thirteenth row map, a large number of Russian place names outside the Sino-Russian border began to be directly reflected on the map in Chinese rather than Manchu. This includes the Anadel River and the Korema River from the east to the Chukchi Peninsula [21], and the west to the west to the Anadel River, the Anadel River, and the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, the Antarctic River, and the Antarctic River, which basically presents the entire Russian territory. In addition, it can still be seen in some Manchu documents that the Qianlong Dynasty also had some understanding of Russia's new trends. In the letter file in the summer of the 28th year of Qianlong (1763), Qianlong accused relevant officials of arbitrarily translating the title of Russian Empress in the Latin Chinese texts as amba ejen instead of katun han. [23] In the Qing and Russian diplomacy, the word Magni Domini Tsaris (Tsar) in the Russian Latin communication in 1697 was also translated as amba ejen (Major monarch). [24] The letter file from the 44th year of Qianlong's reign (1779) shows that at that time, the Qing Dynasty border officials had already understood the significance of water transport of Baikal . [25] Tulichen, the author of "Exotic Record", did not notice the water transport when he passed by Lake Baikal (called Baihaier Lake in "Exotic Record". A memorial from the 48th year of Qianlong's reign (1783) shows that the old etiquette and Nikon factions in the Russian border city of Barnaul had been divided, and their influence was noticed by Qing border officials. [26] Around the 56th year of Qianlong (1791), the sensational "Samarin Incident" occurred on the Xinjiang border. In his edict, Emperor Qianlong judged that the information about Samarin's sending troops and the return of the Volga River was false, and gave various reasons, one of which was that "the original pasture of Ejile is now washed away by water." [27] Does this information also come from instant intelligence? However, the historical trend behind these intelligences is often ignored by the Qing Dynasty, and the intelligence itself is often shelved. It is difficult to enter the official Russian knowledge system in the Qianlong era, and it is difficult to enter the sight of officials and scholars.

More importantly, these scattered intelligence from the Russian Asian part did not impact the knowledge about Russia defined by the court in the Qianlong Dynasty.When the Siku Quanshu was compiled in 1771, the choices of the museum officials on historical materials related to Russia can also illustrate the rigidity of China's knowledge about Russia during the Qianlong period. The reason why "The Record of Foreign Land" was included in the Siku Quanshu is somewhat similar to the fate of "The Record of the Wisdom". One reason why the "Ming Westerners" in the book "Ji Fang Wai Ji" is difficult to verify is that it is better to believe it, which is called "the previous one is a picture of all nations, and the next one is a general theory of the four seas. It is very strange and cannot be investigated, and it seems that it is exaggerated. However, the greatness of heaven and earth is not enough to be included. It is enough to record and preserve it to be widely known." [28] The reason why the "Si Ku Quan Shu" includes "The Record of Exotic Land" is even more intriguing. "Now, it is recorded and the text is recorded so that the world can know all ages... Now the Tuerhut has been attached, and the fourteen countries in Russia's south road have been fully included in the territory after Qianlong and Yihai." [29] The previous place names and national names may not be reliable in the eyes of the Guanchen, but after the accuracy, the Qing Dynasty's march in the hinterland of Eurasian continent is worth talking about.

3. The solidification and backwardness of the Qing Dynasty's knowledge about Russia during the Qianlong and Jiaqing period

caused many reasons for the expansion, stereotype and stagnation of China's knowledge about Russia from expansion, shape to stagnation during the Opium War . The important point is that the knowledge about Russia obtained by the Chinese is uneven in terms of regionality, and these uneven distributions of knowledge are difficult to integrate. When intelligence cannot be converted into knowledge in time or even lags behind knowledge, the following characteristics of Russian knowledge in the middle Qing Dynasty were: First, knowledge is not unified at the central and local levels, or incomplete integration at different levels of communication. During the Shunkang period, the Qing Dynasty had very different understandings of the Russian government that sent Beijing and the Cossack army "Rakshasa" that harassed the border. While the monarchs and ministers of the Qianlong and Jiajia era began to be alert to Russia unprecedentedly due to problems such as the closing of the market in Chaktu and the Amursana , officials and scribes in Heilongjiang were still insensitive to the potential threat from Russia. Second, China's lag in the knowledge of Russia in the Qing Dynasty. Overall, the Qing Dynasty did not pay enough attention to Russian historical knowledge. In the Protestant and Catholic countries in Western Europe, when there were detailed historical records about Russia (the Principality of Moscow) at least 1700, the Chinese specialized research on Russia was not created until He Qiutao compiled "Shuofang Beicheng". Except for the Qianlong period mentioned more frequently on issues such as the Chaktu trade and Russian preaching mission, the basic knowledge system about Russia was still similar to the "Exotic Record" in the early 18th century. Third, the Qing Dynasty's knowledge about Russia was also not very balanced in terms of region. The military prefectures in Mongolia in the Qing Dynasty were different from those in the northeast and northwest areas for a long time. The garrison officials had different levels of knowledge, different border situations, different levels of close interactions, and different experiences and visions of the Youtuan scholars who created the history and geography of the border, which made the Chinese in the Qing Dynasty not only had an unbalanced understanding of different regions of Russia, but also could not effectively integrate the understanding of the Sino-Russian border area.

According to the "Anhui Tongzhi", it can be seen that the author of "Records of the Western Regions" is 71, and he is a man of the Manchu Red Banner and is a guard guard, Guan Zuoling. [30] Seventy-one also mentioned in the preface of "Xiayu Zuotan" that he was a native of the capital and passed the Jinshi in the year of Jiaxu. [31] Yang Zhongxi also said in "Snow Bridge Poetry Talk": "First, the head of Chunyuan was in charge of Kuche, who sent Kuche to talk about the remote area... At that time, the talent of the autumn Cao was prosperous among the various ministries." From this we can see that he was the head of the Ministry of Justice and went to Kuche to do business. [32] According to the imperial edict sent by the court in the 27th year of Qianlong (1762), the seventy-one years from the 25th year of Qianlong (1760) to the 27th year of Qianlong’s reign, and Emperor Qianlong needed manpower to do business in the border areas, and believed that these officials should stay for more years. [33] Judging from these obvious historical materials, Seventy-one should be a person with both academic literacy and field experience. The "Records of the Western Regions" provide a lot of detailed information about Xinjiang, but there are many mistakes about Russia. For example, it is believed that the Russian throne was only passed down to women, from the Liurik lineage to the Romanov dynasty , which was "one surname passed down", confusing the Golden Horde, the Byzantine Empire and Ottoman Turkey, and creating a controlling state. These corruptions indicate that the author lacks a reliable source of knowledge.[34]

Under unbalanced knowledge, intelligence, legends and conjectures are sometimes even interlaced, and sometimes, in fact, accurate knowledge may not be able to gain the upper hand in dissemination compared to false statements. The two variants written by Seventy-one are compared with the two paragraphs of "Volume 4·Biography of Eros" written by Seventy-one, which are written by Seventy-one, and the two paragraphs of "Volume 4·Biography of External Vocationals" written by Seventy-one. The extra part of the latter is quoted from the "Northwest Region Record" written by Xie Jishi , "Eros is also known as Rakshasa, and Guding Ling Kingdom... It was during the Kangxi period and sent his handsome and handsome into our country to study and translate and receive the book of the Four Sons". After this quotation, Seventy-one added a sentence, "Twenty years after Qianlong's reign, due to Amursana and Turkishi, the trade was cut off again and the relationship was no longer connected." The text added in "The Record of the Western Regions" compared with "Xiayu Zuotan" includes the old sayings of Xie Jishi, and the contents added by himself, some errors, and some knowledge that suits the life period of Seventy-one. When citing the "Russia" entry in "Northwest Region Record", the sentence "The land is formed by water, soil and stone, and the sea occupies two, island occupies one, and Russia and China are on the same island"[35] in the original text of "Northwest Region Record", which precisely reflects Xie Jishi's acceptance of modern geography introduced by missionaries in the early Qing Dynasty. The 71 pairs of cutting and selection of Russian knowledge reflect the confusion of his knowledge.

The imbalance of Russian knowledge in the Qianlong era is also reflected in Zhao Yi . Zhao Yi himself is not a person who lacks external knowledge. During the Qianlong period, he was a member of the Military Affairs Office and later served as a editor of the Strategic Library. His narrative on issues such as Russia's geography and how the two countries interact are correct. For example, "During the Kangxi period, our dynasty conquered the Atlantic Kingdom, those who could astrology were sent by the West to Nan Huairen, Gao Shensi and others by land, and they also traveled to Russia. After three years, the western border of the country would reach the West Sea... The letters of the two countries would not go directly to the palace. Our dynasty had a vassal court, and he also had a Sanat. If there was any matter, the two governments would communicate with each other." [36] On the other hand, "It was said that Eros had no muskets and his khans were in harmony with our guards' false accusations" [37], but in the future, a young scholar who might not have surpassed his knowledge structure. Overall, Zhao Yi, Qi Shiyi and others did not have a unified social circle or school like the literati of the "Gu Temple Festival". These people can learn about the relevant situation in Russia, often because of their positions. When he was working in Xinjiang, he could hear information about the Russian-Turkish war, but he could not confirm it, nor could he let the information he learned be in line with the Qing Dynasty's knowledge about the Chaktu system. Zhao Yi is at the political center and knows the basic forms of Sino-Russia exchanges under the Chaktu system, but he is not so clear about the war and harmony in the Heilongjiang River basin decades ago.

In Japan at the same time, although there were such a mixed and chaotic work as "The Complete Picture of the Earth's Mountains, Seas, and Geography" by Chishui, and the continued circulating of " Kunyu Wanguo's Complete Picture of ", the Japanese realized earlier that Russia is not only a far north country with vast land, but also a potential power. The famous scholar Masana Yamamura Masanaga wrote in 1806, "A Brief Introduction to the Chinese and French" that was famous for its 18th and 19th centuries, which clearly stated that Russia is a "strong country", and behind Yamamura Masanaga is the genealogy of orchid . The rigidity of

knowledge has caused hidden worries. Since the late 18th century, the Qing Dynasty's prestige of Russian knowledge gradually emerged. Since the Kangxi Dynasty drew the "Jilin Nine Rivers Map", the Qing Dynasty has already gained enough geographical knowledge about the middle and lower reaches of Heilongjiang. In the "Qianlong Inner Palace Map" compiled and painted between the 25th year of Qianlong (1760) and the 27th year of Qianlong (1762), the situation in the Heilongjiang River Basin has been clearly reflected. In the 43rd year of Qianlong (1778), the map attached to the "Imperial Decree Shengjing Tongzhi" in the 44th year of Qianlong (1779), it can be seen that the Qing Dynasty still retained the knowledge of Nibuchu and Yaxa on the north bank of Heilongjiang. However, at the end of the ninth day of the 57th year of Qianlong (1792), Qianlong suddenly issued an order to find out the location of Jakarsa and Nebchu on the border between China and Russia, and this year happened to be the year when Macartney made Hua .

Regarding why the court suddenly attached importance to Nebchu and Yaxa at this time, some articles believe that Emperor Qianlong did not know the origin of Yaxa and Nebchu at first. After clarifying that Yaxa was Chinese territory, he began to pay close attention to the city's garrison in detail, in order to prevent Russia's suspicion, it would damage the peace of the border between the two countries. [38] This just shows that the official map fell into the relationship between Chen and Chen after basically being improved. The Qianlong Dynasty did have some omissions in the information north of Heilongjiang, such as the Yakutsk , which was built as early as 1636, which was not marked until the "Qianlong Thirteen Row Map". During the Qianlong period, the Qing Dynasty did not have much opportunity to obtain information from the Yakutsk and Lena River basins. In the 26th year of Qianlong's reign (1761), a Russian soldier fled to China and claimed that he would cut off his ears and noses when he went to the Yakutsk area to join the army. Regarding this issue, Emperor Qianlong's instructions showed that he could not judge the authenticity by understanding the actual situation in the Siberian region of Russia. [39] The court probably did not understand much about the impact of the Nebchuyaquesa's geopolitical and the Treaty of Nebchuya, during the Qianlong period. The "Strategy for Pacifying Rakshasa" has not entered the " Imperial Siku Quanshu ", and it is even possible that the Chinese text that has not yet been formed when the Siku Quanshu was compiled. Later generations lamented that "the Four Library has written a strategy for recording and reading, and they have never seen these Four Library." [40] Knowledge and memory were also forgotten in the peace of Qianlong period. After the Opium War, the far-reaching significance of the Treaty of Nibchu was discovered by Wei Yuan and others: "Since the Russian alliance was established, the junyi firearms had no borrowing and no defeat, and even the affairs of Qianlong A Ni and Tuerhut were not restricted. Therefore, the northwest territory was opened thousands of miles, all with the forces of near-distance attacks. It was before the eyes and ears, but it took effect for decades." [41]

1 The reason why the border was valued in this 11792 was mainly due to the end of the third closing of the market in Chaktu, and the court had to patrol and appease the Sino-Russian border. At the same time, the British's attention to Sino-Russian relations is also affecting Emperor Qianlong's vigilance. [42] In the tenth month of the lunar calendar in the 57th year of Qianlong (1792), British merchants in Guangzhou applied to send envoys to the capital, and the court approved this request. Shortly after agreeing to the British, Emperor Qianlong secretly issued a secret edict at the beginning of the second year to Kulun’s service, telling him that if the Russian side sent someone to inquire about the British coming to China again, they must be vague and should not formally explain all matters. [43] When Macartney's mission came to Beijing, it proposed the requirement to set up a consulate and a shopping mall. Emperor Qianlong quoted an example and said, "Without Macau foreign companies selling goods, why bother to set up another company in the capital." [44] During Macartney's visit to China, Songjun, the then-accompanied military minister, also exchanged some knowledge on issues such as the government and folk customs in Russia. [45]

In addition to structural imbalance, the Qing Dynasty's knowledge level about Russia also had regional imbalance. When we arrived in the Jiaqing Dynasty, Xiqing, who was "good at political affairs and leisure, searching for local style" [46], first translated the Manchu text of the Treaty of Nebuchu in Heilongjiang [47]. The translation of Xiqing disclosed the detailed contents of the Treaty of Nebuchu and the parties to the Chinese knowledge group. Xie Qinggao, a sailor who had arrived in different European countries, had a surprising confusion about Russia and Prussia, and Yang Bingnan, a literati who published oral materials, could not distinguish it. [48] ​​Heilongjiang's active and openness to foreign exchanges in the early 19th century was far lower than that in Guangdong at the same time, but in Guangdong, where foreign exchanges were quite active, literati have not yet shown more knowledge of Russia. The reason is that the fixation of the Sino-Russian exchange model under the Chiktor system has greatly restricted the formation and dissemination of knowledge about Russia in China.

4. Russian knowledge of the Dao-Sanitary period represented by "Shuofang Beicheng" and which was both new and old. In the mid-119th century, the Heilongjiang coast, which had been relatively calm after the signing of the Treaty of Nibchu, encountered an unprecedented crisis. At the end of 1850, Neverskoy built Nikolayevsk on the temple street on the Chinese side stipulated in the Treaty of Nibchu. In 1854, Muravyov led his army to a steamer downstream from the Shileka River, along the main stream of Heilongjiang River, all the way to the sea outlet. In the winter of 1855 (the fifth year of Xianfeng), Muravyov used the excuse to prevent his opponents in the Crimean War, Britain and France, and sneaked into the Pacific coast and invaded our Heilongjiang River Basin.Muravyov's actions marked Russia's occupation of the north of Heilongjiang, and the balance since the Treaty of Nibchu began to be destroyed by the Russians.

The sudden change forced the Qing Dynasty to pay attention to and organize all knowledge about Russia. Under such circumstances, He Qiutao, who is both new and old, has appeared on the stage of history. "Lang Qian Jiwen" by Chen Kangqi in the late Qing Dynasty recorded: "Why would I like to ship Qiu Tao from the Ministry of Justice... In the capital, he and Zhang Shizhou, the editor of the prime minister of Qi Wenduan, Zhang Shizhou, Xiaolian, and Xiaolian. Xianfeng and Gengshenchun submitted a new book on foreign vassals in 80 volumes, named Shuofang Beicheng." [49] The interactions with Qi Junzao, He Shaoji and others undoubtedly caused him to have an intersection with the border history and geography school in the late Qing Dynasty. He Qiutao's academic foundation also has a family background. Yang Xiangyun, a doctor at the Ministry of Revenue, once said that He Qiutao had a large amount of historical and geography information, including maps of the inner palaces of the Kangxi and Qianlong dynasties since childhood. [50]

Judging from the situation at that time, He Qiutao basically exhausted all possible sources of information. According to the preface made by Huang Pengnian in the Guangxu period of the Qing Dynasty, "This book of imperial decrees and official history is based on the map, Li Chen, Chen Lunjiu, Fang Ji... and the disciples of modern people Yu Zhengxie, Zhang Mu, Wei Yuan, Yao Ying, and foreigners Ai Ruluo, Nan Huairen... and other books published by foreigners in Shanghai and Guangzhou are to clarify the misunderstanding and eliminate the absurdity..." [51] He Qiutao also has his focus on the historical materials as exhausted as possible. The Treaty of Chuktu and the related Chaktu trade and the activities and exchanges of the Russian Orthodox evangelism team in Beijing are important contents in "Shuofang Beiche". In particular, the content that "Shuofang Beiche" is expanded compared to "Northern Compilation" revolves around the Chaktu system. Another value of

"Shuofang Beiche" is the rediscovery of some documents that have been put aside. "The Strategy for Pacifying Rakshasa" records: "Daoguang Guiwei... Longding'an... From the collection of the Historical Museum, everyone only learned that this was happening...." [52] "The Strategy for Longsha" was not important before He Qiutao. Although the knowledge about Russia in "The Record of Foreign Land" has entered some other texts, few people have paid attention to it before He Qiutao.

The predecessor of Shuofang Beicheng, "The Northern Compendium", contains not many works. It counts the entire book like "Judgment of the Wisdom" and "Exotic Records" and the paragraph "Biography of the Oros" excerpted from the works, and there are only more than ten kinds of documents in total. Among these dozen documents, the majority are related to the Treaty of Nebchu and the Chaktu system, while the rest are knowledge about Russia translated by Ai Ruluo, Wei Yuan, Yao Ying and others from the West. After the "Northern Compilation" was expanded to "Shuofang Beicheng", He Qiutao added a large number of personal writings and evidence of other people's writings. Among them, a large amount of content is still related to the Chuktu system, including his excavation of the history of Sino-Russia relations in the 19th century as much as possible. For example, the incident of China and Russia giving each other books in 1843 was found in "Russian Presentation Book Record", and the bibliography recorded in "Russian Presentation Book Record" also reflects the development of Russian cultural education at that time to a certain extent. "Russian Pavilion Examination" records the classes and names of Russian students who came to China with the Orthodox preaching delegation after the Treaty of Chikto. "Russian Learning Examination" briefly describes the learning content, batches and destinations of Russian students from the Imperial College and the Eight Banners students who were selected to study Russian by the Cabinet.

Overall, the most reliable knowledge in "Shuofang Beicheng" is the content of Sino-Russian cultural and economic exchanges under the Chaktu system. "Shuofang Beiche" is also an important information for contemporary Russian scholars. Contemporary Russian scholar Miasnikov quoted some archives translated from "Shuofang Beicheng" in "Shuofang Beicheng" Volume 2" and "Shuofang Beicheng" Volume 6" both. [53]

"Shuofang Beicheng" also compiled a large amount of materials on Sino-Russia relations in the Treaty of Nebuchu and the northeastern border, such as "The Strategy for Pacifying Rakshasa", "The Strategy for Longsha", and "The Foreign Records of Heilongjiang", etc. This knowledge mainly comes from previous generations. Regarding the issue of Sino-Russia relations on the northwest border, there is not much in "Shuofang Beicheng"."The Map of the Border between China and Russia" mentions the newly established locations of the Sino-Russia Tarbach Taiwan Border Agreement in 1851. Coupled with the unreliable but no substitute work, the "Records of the Western Regions" and a brief introduction to Ita trade, He Qiutao and his friends made the knowledge of the western border area of ​​China and Russia publicly available to the public. However, the level of knowledge about Sino-Russia relations within the text of "Shuofang Beicheng" is unbalanced. Among them, the knowledge about Sino-Russian exchanges that took place in Beijing can reach the level of the Daoguang Dynasty in the 1830s and 1840s, and the knowledge about Sino-Russian exchanges in Mongolia centered on Chaktu can at least reach the level of the Jiaqing period. The knowledge about Sino-Russia relations on the eastern section of China-Russia border, except for scattered local knowledge, can only reach the level of the Kangxi Dynasty as a whole. In addition to the recent content of the Sino-Russian Tarbach Taiwan Agreement on the Sino-Russian border, the knowledge about Sino-Russia relations on the western border is generally lingering at the old sayings of "The Record of Foreign Lands" and the unreliable level of "The Record of Western Regions".

Under this imbalance, the more the "Shuofang Beiche" involves the content related to the Nebchu Treaty and the relevant knowledge of the Chaktu system, the more fragmented and contradictory it is, and the more mistakes it is. To a certain extent, although there is a lot of knowledge about Sino-Russia relations in "Shuofang Beicheng" after 1727, his understanding of Russia's national conditions is indeed not higher than that of "Exotic Records". Although Yoshida’s remarks are biased, they also reflect certain facts. In addition to "Shuofang Beicheng", in the same era, scholars are still trying their best to acquire new knowledge about Russia. Some of the Chinese translations of Kalamzin's "History of the State of Russia" "History of the State of Russia" were written in the Qing Dynasty. [54] However, whether this knowledge about Russia has entered the perspective of Qing scholars is still a question. But the indisputable fact is that although the Chinese have accumulated rich knowledge on Sino-Russia relations under the Chaktu system at this time, their overall understanding of Russia has lagged behind the times.

From a text perspective, the most important content of "Shuofang Beicheng" is about the knowledge of the Chaktu system, and "Suifu Jilu" published in the third year of Daoguang (1823) is one of the actual core documents of "Shuofang Beicheng". The influence of "Suifu Jilu" on "Shuofang Beicheng" is that Songyun's works connect several of He Qiutao's contemporaries, and on the other hand, most of the newer knowledge included in "Shuofang Beicheng" is related to the Chaktu system, and "Suifu Jilu" is the earliest Chinese work to introduce the Chaktu system in detail. He Qiutao's emphasis on Song Yun's account has brought the relevant knowledge of the middle-section of China-Russia border into the general public's vision. Song Yun, who was once the Minister of Service of Kulun, was a direct party to Sino-Russia Chaktu trade and border negotiations in the 18th century. He was also another important official of the bannerman who left behind a valuable history of Sino-Russia relations after Tulichen. "The Complete and End of the Chaktu Mutual Market" in "Shuofang Beicheng" was greatly influenced by "Suifu Jilu", and the full text of "Suifu Jilu" was also included in the "Shuofang Beicheng" and the "Suifu Jilu" was included in the "Suijing Books" in "Shuofang Beicheng". Zhang Mu's "Supplement to Russia" and He Qiutao's research on Sino-Russia relations all refer greatly to Song Yun's first-hand information.

Some foreign scholars have overexplanated He Qiutao's purpose. Soviet scholars once translated "Shuofang Beicheng" into the Russian name «Готовьте боевые колесницы на странуПолунощную», which means "a chariot prepared for the country of night". [55] In fact, "Shuofang Beicheng" and several books named "Beicheng" in the late Qing Dynasty have similar ideas, both of which are based on "preparation for exams" and "historical Cheng". He Qiutao himself is not a military aide. Although He Qiutao was aware of Russia's invasion of the Qing Dynasty, he did not expect Russia's greater aggression energy. He Qiutao still compiled this book in a traditional way of local chronicles, and examined the strong neighbors in the north with the traditional view of "vassal states". Under this way of thinking, the content of commerce and employment is still what He is concerned about compared to topics such as geopolitics and strategic intelligence.

Although Yu Zhengxie, a scholar of the Dao-Sheng era who was quoted by He Qiutao and who was not much of a discussion on Russia, it reflects the Chinese people's perception of Russia at that time and the new and old things in "Shuofang Beicheng".Yu Zhengxie is a strange character. According to the "Draft History of Qing Dynasty", he is an old-style literati who lived in the late Qing Dynasty and was unsuccessful all his life. However, He Qiutao mentioned in "Shuofang Beicheng" that the "Strategy for Pacifying Rakshasa" he obtained came from Yu Zhengxie and Wei Yuan, who was the governor of Gaoyou at the time. [56] According to the records of "Collection of Monuments", Yu Zhengxie not only lived in Beijing for a long time, but also participated in the editing of the Jiaqing Dynasty ceremony, and was not a pure Mr. Dongbai. [57] Yu Zhengxie, He Qiutao, Zhang Mu and others coincidentally sorted out and compiled the classics about Russia hidden in the capital, which also allowed this knowledge to begin to get out of the shelf.

On the other hand, judging from Yu Zhengxie's writings, his knowledge structure about Russia is very limited. The contents in "Gui Si Classic Manuscripts" and "Gui Si Public Manuscripts" are mainly based on ethical stories and anecdotes, so there are also many absurd theories. However, he also made unique contributions to the collation of documents on Sino-Russia relations. For example, "Russian Zocongkao" details the whole story of how the captives of the Yakshas were taken to the Beijing Banner. "Russian Affairs Collection" is an earlier theory of combining history and geography. It not only describes the geographical profile of Russia, but also sorts out the diplomatic history from the Baykov mission to the Golovkin mission. "A Postscript to the Russian Long Manuscript" proves that the Russians believe in Catholicism through absurd ways. It is obvious that this knowledge was probably obtained by him in the capital at that time, and the source was inseparable from the Orthodox sermons.

Before He Qiutao reviewed the "Records of the Western Regions", in 1829, Biqiulin translated the "Book of Han·Biography of the Western Regions" and "Records of the Western Regions" into Russian, named it "Description of the Ministry of Justice and the Return of Xinjiang from ancient times to the present". The original name of the Russian is «Описание Чжуньгарии и ВосточногоТуркестана в древнем и нынешнем состоянии». In the preface of this book, Bi Qiulin still affirmed the value of instant knowledge brought by "Records of the Western Regions". [58] However, in "Shuofang Beicheng", He Qiutao's distrust of "The Record of the Western Regions" reached a peak. His self-exercising "On the Bordering Situation between Russia and Turkey" mercilessly criticized the correct Russian knowledge inherited from "Exotic Records" as a fallacy. He Qiutao believes that Russia has always had absolute hegemony in the Black Sea and has controlled the Caucasus in the 19th century. [59] Therefore, He Qiutao believes that the "Conggar" who once dominated the Black Sea and oppressed Russia in the seventy-one eyes must not be Türkiye. Obviously, He Qiutao is not very familiar with the rise and fall of Russia-Turkey relations. Judging from the course of the Russian-Turkish War, Russia completely gained the upper hand over Turkey only after conquering Crimea at the end of the 18th century. In the era of Tulichen and Seventy-one, Russia was not the overlord of the Black Sea, and Ottoman Türkiye was far from becoming a sick man in the West.

Yao Ying, who is also a "opening her eyes to the world", also expressed her opinions on this in "Kangmao Travel", judging that the controlling country of Gar that competes with Russia in the "Records of the Western Regions" should be Prussia. He said: "The Record of the Western Regions of the Revelation and Views says that there is a state of control of Gar outside of Eros, which is even greater than that of Eros. I examined it according to the Europa "Four Continents Records" and it is said that Gar is controlled in the northwest of Eros, namely the Plu Society." [60] Yao Ying obviously used the historical background of the decline of Ottoman Turkey and the rise of Prussia in the mid-19th century to date.

Compared with people of his contemporaries, Xu Jiyu's works have fewer self-exercises, which are relatively close to the original appearance of modern Western historical and geography. [61] However, in "Yinghuan Zhiluo", while Xu Jizu made a relatively correct judgment on the case in "Records of the Western Regions", he also gave an incorrect conclusion. In the chapter "Eros Kingdom", Xu Jiyu decided that the Gar should be Türkiye, and he also knew that Russia and Turkey had won and lost each other for years in history. [62] However, in the previous review of Europe, he mistakenly believed that the Gar may be the synonym of the entire Europe. "Qichunyuan's "Records of the Western Regions" says: There is a great country in the northwest of Eros called Gar... and so on. I have read it and I wondered how it is born. If I examine it now, there is no such country in the West... I know that the so-called Gar refers to the entire land of Europa.”[63]

The first group of people in the Qing Dynasty who opened their eyes to the world had begun to understand the world through Western books, and also reorganized, criticized and made public the official knowledge about Russia collected by the Qing Dynasty, and even noticed Russia's ambition to compete for global hegemony from a simple geopolitical perspective. However, due to language and times, their understanding of Russia's actual situation is always separated by a layer. In their insightful discussion, there are also some misjudgments on the situation. This backwardness of Russian knowledge, as mentioned earlier, began in the middle of the Qing Dynasty.

Whether the officials expanded "Xiayu Juji" into "Xiuji" in "Xiuji" seventy-one, the quotation of Xie Jishi's writings to "Xiujiujiu" by officials who opened their eyes to the world in the Daoxian era, the incorrect doubts of the facts in "Xiujiujiujiu" were reflected in this backwardness. The frontier history and geography school that emerged in the Jiadao period of the Qing Dynasty and even their founder Song Yun, the focus of the northwest border was mainly on preventing the regime in Central Asia, and did not pay much attention to Russia's activities in the northwest border of China. [64] Even Lin Ze, who was talked about by people of the time and was considered the first to realize the disaster of the imperial and Russian invasion, was the first to realize the disaster of the imperial and Russian invasion. [64] Even Lin Ze, who was talked about by people at that time, was considered the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion. [64] Even Lin Ze, who was relished and considered to be the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion, was the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion. [64] Even Lin Ze, who was talked about by people at that time, was the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion. [64] Even Lin Ze, who was talked about by people at that time, was the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion. [64] Even Lin Ze, who was relished and considered to be the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion, was aware of the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion. [64] Even Lin Ze, who was talked about by people at that time, was the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion. [64] Even Lin Ze, who was talked about by people at that time, was the first to realize the disaster of imperial and Russian invasion. [64] Even the Lin Ze, who was relished and believed to be the first to realize the disaster Xu [65], the academic community also has some point of justification. [66]

5. Yu Lun

"Shuofang Beicheng" suffered misfortune in the Second Opium War. The original copy was destroyed under the military disaster of the British and French allied forces invading Beijing [67], and the copy was also unexpectedly destroyed. [68] Soon He Qiutao passed away and no one compiled the original manuscript for him. It was not until the seventh year of Guangxu (1881) that someone reorganized and edited the "Shuofang Beicheng" and was published by the Jifu Tongzhi Bureau. At this time, Sino-Russian relations and even the Qing Dynasty officials' knowledge of Russia were published. Major changes have occurred.

After the Tongzhi Dynasty, Russian diplomats, like their pioneer Tulichen, learned about Russia's development and history through on-site visits and foreign knowledge, and gained some correct understanding. Bin Chun, who was on a mission to the Russian capital of St. Petersburg in 1866, wrote "Notes on the Craft", which depicts the "Direction of the Tiger and Dragon" of the Kronstadt Fortress "a stagnant in the sea, with tigers and dragons hanging in the sea", and St. Petersburg "is truly the best of the capitals of all countries." [69] Zhang Deyi, who was traveling with him, had already realized that "the only countries in Taixi call for small states is England, Franc, and Russia. "[70] It is particularly worth noting here that Russia, which was regarded as the Inner Asian regime in the past, and even the "Russian barbarians", have now become part of the "Thaisie". The drastic changes in the times have made the Chinese people gradually realize the prosperity of Russia. Even the thoughts are full of pedantic and backward, and that the Russian army widely used firearms in violation of the sages, and even that Russian and Chinese are the same, Miao Yousun [71] also realized from the field experience that Russia's railway construction "first from the hinterland thoroughfare to the small towns on the frontier" [72]. The Russian army "used the Thaisie method... guns, cannons and equipment, striving to poison and beating the evil spirits." [73]

From the Treaty of Nebchu to the city of Chikto, during which time, the Qing Dynasty's knowledge of Russia became hot. Tide. Since the signing of the city of Chaktu, and after the Qianlong Dynasty, China's solidification of Russian knowledge, the Chinese people's cognition of Russia has gradually formed a structure dominated by the knowledge of the Chaktu system. From Songyun to Zhang Mu to He Qiutao who compiled "Shuofang Beicheng", the early Russian system they established was actually a kind of "Chaktu Science". Such a knowledge structure must rely on the Chaktu system itself. After the Second Opium War, the basic forms and exchanges of Sino-Russia diplomacy changed, and the Chaktu trade also declined shortly afterwards due to the impact of sea and railways. The refined "Russian Studies" in the Qianlong and Jiajia Dao and Xian era finally fell behind the times in the face of the new situation of Sino-Russia relations after the end of the Chaktu system.

[1] [Qing Dynasty] Miao Yousun: "Compilation of Russian Travel", edited by Xu Naizheng and Li Changlin, Changsha: Yuelu Bookstore, 2016, pages 5-6.

[2] Same as above, page 6.

[3] Same as above.

[4] [Qing Dynasty] Liu Jinzao: "General Study of Qing Dynasty Literature", Shanghai: Commercial Press, 25th year of the Republic of China, Volume 267.

[5][Japan] Yoshida Jinichi: "History of Modern Lu Qingyan", Tokyo: Kondo Publishing House, 1974, Japanese version, page 212.

[6] From the Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China and today, Chinese scholars' papers judging the Treaty of Nebchu still focus on the impact of specific negotiations. However, in the article "The Phantom of the Treaty of Nebchu", scholars from Japan have tried to analyze the cultural symbols established by the Treaty of Nebchu ("Forbidden City Academic Quarterly", 2011 No. 1).

[7] "Pinmeng Diary" was published in the late Qing Dynasty and was included in "Yongxianzhai Notes". According to Chen's record, this translation of the routine work of the Russian Cultural Museum was first published in "Records of Chinese and Western Experiences". From this point of view, the Chinese text of "Pinmeng Diary" may also originate from the early Qing Dynasty. See Chen Qiyuan's book: "Yongxianzhai Notes", Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1997, Chinese version, page 117.

[8]Дацышен В.Г. Четыреста лет историирусско-китайских отношений. Часть 1. Сборник статей. Москва-Берлин, 2014.С.96-99.

[9][Italian] Ai Ruluo: "Journal of the Examination of the Jufang Wai", Xie Fang's Examination, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1996, Chinese version, page 101.

[10][Qing Dynasty] Fan Ji wrote: "Longsha Jilu", compiled by Wang Xiqi of the Qing Dynasty: "Xiaofanghuzhai Yudi Cong Chao·First Volume", in the 13th year of the Guangxu period, a printed copy of Yitang in Shanghai was written.

[11] Гл. ред. А.П. Окладников и В.И. Шунков. История Сибири с древнейших врен до нашихдней (том 2). Издательство Л: Наука. Ленингр. отд-ние, 1968. С.31-32.

[12]Краткая сибирская летопись (Кунгурская). С.-Петербург: тип. Ф.Г. Елконского, 1880.С.5.

[13] Regarding this point, some scholars have proposed the view that when Tushishi, Dexin and others traveled to Moscow, they might bring about material or knowledge exchanges (see Wang Xilong's book: A Brief History of Sino-Russia Relations, Lanzhou: Gansu Cultural Publishing House, 1995, p. 109). However, combined with the relevant historical materials in the "Selected Historical Materials of China and Russia in the Qing Dynasty", what Man Tai, Tuo Shi, De Xin and other people, as well as ministers in the court, was whether the situation in Russia had an impact on the situation in the northwest border, whether the relationship between Russia and the Volga Turkuts would jointly affect the security of the Qing Dynasty, and that Russia had basically never been involved in Russia's historical geography, customs and customs. See the first Chinese Archives Museum: "Selected Historical Materials of Chinese and Russian Archives in the Qing Dynasty" (Part 1), Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1979, pp. 529-566.

[14][Qing Dynasty] Chen Kangqi: "Lang Qian Jiwen", Volume 4, Qing Guang's engraving.

[15] "Xie Suizhi Gongtu Manchu text and pictures"; Zhuang Jifa's annotation, Taipei Palace Museum, 1989, page 39.

[16] Judging from the description of European countries in the "Imperial Qing Dynasty Tribute Picture", his understanding of countries around the world is generally at the end of the 17th century. For example, the history of the Orange family from the Netherlands ascended the British throne after the Glorious Revolution, and the British consumed a large amount of raw materials in the North American colonies; the details of the 17th-century Swiss Calvinism leading compulsory education mentioned below, "The Atlantic Ocean did not worship the people of the Asian province" mentioned below.

[17] "The Strategy for Palmizing Rakshasa" Volume 1, published in "Continued Comprehensive Book of Siku", Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1993, Volume 390, page 407.

[18] Volume 4 of "The Strategy for Palmizing Rakshasa", published in "Continued Comprehensive Book of Siku", Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1993, Volume 390, page 429.

[19] [France] Voltaire: "History of the Russian Empire during the reign of Peter the Great", translated by Wu Moxin, Beijing: Commercial Press, 2016, p. 105.

[20][Qing Dynasty] Fan Ji wrote: "Longsha Jilu", compiled by Wang Xiqi of [Qing Dynasty]: "Xiaofanghuzhai Yudi Cong Chao, Volume 1", in the thirteenth year of the Guangxu period, a lead-printed version of Yitang was written in Shanghai.

[21] is marked as Anatil Bila and Guo Limumabila (the second row east first), respectively. See Wang Qianjin and Liu Ruofang compiled: "The Complete Collection of Three Major Tests of the Qing Dynasty - Qianlong's Thirteen Row Pictures", Beijing: Foreign Languages ​​Publishing House, 2007.

[22] The Gulf of Finland is marked as "Deamodeli, Finland" (Fourth rows, West Five), while St. Petersburg, Kronstadt Fortress and Shlisheli Fort at the mouth of Lake Ladoga, Neva River, are written as "Sanbodel Bujukhetun" (Four rows, West Five), "Guolumusdotohetun" and "Segeliusbobrukhetun" (Four rows, West Four), see "The Complete Collection of Three Major Measurements of the Qing Dynasty - Qianlong's Thirteen Rows", Beijing: Foreign Languages ​​Publishing House, 2007.

[23] "Sent instructed the Grand Secretary of the Grand Secretary in Beijing to ask about the Russian literary figure calling his queen the great emperor, May 28th year of Qianlong's reign", see China's First Archives: "Translation and Compilation of Manchu Letters in the Qianlong Dynasty·Full 4", Changsha: Yuelu Bookstore, 2011, Manchu see pages 174-176, Chinese see pages 508.

[24] Editor of the National Palace Museum Documentary Museum, Peking: "Russian Historical Materials of the Palace Museum, Original Russian Communications between the Qing Dynasty, Kangxi and Qianlong Russian Communications", Taiwan United Nations Style Publishing House, 1969, Latin Communications are available on page 17, Manchu Communications are available on page 193.

[25] "Transpent to the Minister of Service of Kulun Bo Qing'e and asked why the Russian side did not allow us to go to Kuboxing, Chu. On the sixth day of the 44th year of Qianlong," "Translation of Manchu Letters in the Qianlong Dynasty·Full 4", Manchu text see pages 80-82, Chinese text page 599.

[26] "Trust the letter to the Minister of Counsel Haining of Cop. He will send it back to Russia in the future. August 29, 2018, Qianlong." See "Translation and Compilation of Manchu Letters in the Qianlong Dynasty·File 16", Manchu see pages 303-304, Chinese see pages 631.

[27] "Sent to General Baoning of Yili, and others, to transfer Yongbao to Tarbhatai to station. On the fifth day of the second month of the 56th year of Qianlong", see "Translation and Compilation of Manchu Letters in the Qianlong Dynasty·Film 22", see page 264 of Manchu text, see page 572 of Chinese text.

[28][Qing Dynasty] Yongying: "The Complete Collection of Four Library Books", Volume 71, engraved by Wuying Hall of Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty.

[29] Same as above.

[30] "Guangxu Repair of Anhui General Records", Volume 147, a version engraved in the fourth year of Guangxi in the Qing Dynasty.

[31] "General Examination of Qing Dynasty Literature", Ten General Versions of the Republic of China, Volume 267·Eleven of the Classics.

[32] Yang Zhongxi compiled: "Snow Bridge Poetry Talk", Qiushuzhai Series of the Republic of China, Volume 8 of the three episodes.

[33] "Trust the ministers of the Ministry of Hui's office, and other officials sent to the Qing Dynasty should not be submitted to the Qing Dynasty before the end of the year. July 17, 27th year of Qianlong", see the editor of the First Historical Archives of China: "Translation and Compilation of Manchu Letters in the Qianlong Dynasty·Full 3", Changsha: Yuelu Bookstore, 2012, Chinese version, Manchu texts are available, pages 249-250, Chinese texts are available.

[34][Qing] Seventy-one: "Wenyuan Hearing and Seen in the Western Regions", Volume 4: Biography of the Foreign Voids, Qing Qingzhaotang series.

[35][Qing Dynasty] Xie Jishi's work: "Records of the Northwest Region", engraved by Shidetang of the Qing Dynasty.

[36][Qing Dynasty] Zhao Yi and Yao Yuanzhi: "Miscellaneous Notes on Eaves and Miscellaneous Notes on Bamboo Leaf Pavilion", Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1982, page 19.

[37][Qing Dynasty] Wei Yuan wrote: "Haiguo Tu Zhi", a copy of Wei Guangtao Pingqing Jing Gudao Bureau in the second year of Guangming in the Qing Dynasty, Volume 56.

[38] Han Xiaomei: "Jaksa and Nibchu in the archives of Qianlong Dynasty", "Manchu Language Research", 2014 No. 1.

[39] "Sent to the Deputy General of Khalkha Sangzedorji to send the Russian fugitive to the capital, May 12, 26th year of Qianlong", see "Compilation of Manchu Letters in the Qianlong Dynasty·File 2", see page 259 of Manchu texts, see page 601 of Chinese texts.

[40][Qing Dynasty] Gong Zizhen wrote: "Complete Collection of Dinglu", a book engraved by the 23rd year of the Qing Guangming Dynasty, and a collection of supplementary volume 3.

[41][Qing Dynasty] Wei Yuan wrote: "Haiguo Tu Zhi", a copy of Wei Guangtao Pingqing Jing Gudao Bureau in the second year of Guangming in the Qing Dynasty, Volume 54.

[42] See [Russia] Korsak's "History of Russia-China Relations", translated by Mi Zhenbo, Beijing: Social Sciences Documentation Press, 2010, p. 45. I also saw He Qiutao's writing: "Shuofang Beicheng", a copy of Qingguang, Volume 37.

[43] "Sent to Kulun's service prince YunduanDorji, waiting for Russia to report to the English affairs, there is no need to reply. On the 18th day of the first lunar month of the 58th year of Qianlong", see "Compilation of Manchu Letters in the Qianlong Dynasty·Film 23", page 403.

[44] [Qing Dynasty] Wang Zhichun wrote: "Records of the Soft Dynasty in the Kingdom", a Guangya book engraved in the 17th year of Guangming in the Qing Dynasty, Volume 6.

[45] In the article "Supplement to Russian Affairs" written by Zhang Mu, who included in "Shuofang Beicheng", mentioned that Song Yun consulted Macartney about the principle of succession of the Russian female rulers and whether the description of the Istanbul walls in "Exotic Records" is true. See "The Continuation of the Dynasty's Jingshiwen", Guangxu lithographed version, Volume 74·Military Policy Thirteen. Song Yun and the British delegation's discussion on the Russian issue is also confirmed in Macartney's account. See Macartney's book "1793 An Audience of the British Envoy Qianlong", translated by Liu Bannong, Tianjin: Tianjin People's Publishing House, 2006, pp. 166, 192.

[46][Qing Dynasty] Liu Fenggao wrote: "Cunhuizhai Collection", a copy printed in the 17th year of Daoguang in the Qing Dynasty, Volume 11.

[47][Qing Dynasty] Xiqing: "Heilongjiang Foreign Records", a copy of the Qing Guangyiya Bookstore, Volume 6.

[48] Xie wrote: "Pulu's country, also known as Ms. Sigabi, is north of Danying. The territory is slightly larger, and the customs are the same as Huihui... From now on, I don't know where it is." On the surface, the Pulu's writing seems to be Prussia, but the geographical environment and customs mentioned later are far from the Prussia Kingdom, which has long been Germanized. Sigabi has nothing to do with Prussia. It is very likely that the so-called Pulu writing is to misinterpret Prussia and Russia, and Sigabi is a transliteration of Moscovite. See [Qing Dynasty] Yang Bingnan's book written by: "Hailu", Qinghaishan Immortal Museum series.

[49][Qing Dynasty] Chen Kangqi wrote: "Lang Qian Jiwen", a Qing Guang engraved version, Volume 13.

[50][Qing Dynasty] Gui Wencan wrote: "A Collection of Classics and Learning", engraved by Jingjitang series of books in the Republic of China, Volume 3.

[51][Qing Dynasty] He Qiutao wrote: "Shuofang Beicheng", a version engraved by Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty, preface.

[52][Qing Dynasty] Zhou Zhongfu wrote: "Zheng Tang Reading Secretary", Wuxing Series of the Republic of China, Volume 17.

[53] See Сост. Н.Ф. Демидова, В.С. Мясников. Русско-китайские отношения в XVIII в. Материалы идокументы. Том 2. 1725-1727. М. Наука, 1990. and Отв.ред. С.Л. Тихвинский. Русско-китайскиеотношения в XVIII в. Материалы идокументы. Том 6. 1752-1765.М. Памятники исторической мысли, 2011.

[54] For its ins and outs, please refer to Liu Ruomei: "The world's first Chinese Russian History - a study on the copy of the Chinese Manuscript of the Russian Tibetan Qing Dynasty "Rosia National History", "Guangdong Social Sciences", 2020 No. 1.

[55] Сост. Н.Ф. Демидова, В.С. Мясников. Русско-китайские отношения в XVIII в. Материалы идокументы. Том 2. 1725-1727. М. Наука, 1990. С.28.

[56][Qing Dynasty] Written by He Qiutao: "Shuofang Beicheng", a version engraved by Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty, Volume 5.

[57][Republic of China] Min Erchang wrote: "Collected and Supplementary of the Monument", published in the 12th year of the Republic of China, Volume 48.

[58] Бичурин Н.Я. Описание Чжуньгарии и Восточного Туркистана в древнем и нынешнемсостоянии. Часть I. СПб., 1829. С.VII.

[59][Qing Dynasty] He Qiutao: "Shuofang Beicheng", a version engraved by Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty, Volume 40.

[60][Qing Dynasty] Yao Ying: "Kang Qi Xing", a copy of Tongzhi in the Qing Dynasty, Volume 10.

[61] Wei Sanwei praised "Yinghuan Zhilu" for its contents more accurate than similar books in the Qing Dynasty. See S.W. Williams, "The Ying Hwan Chi-lioh", The Chinese Repository, 1851, Vol.20, No.4, p.169. Quoted from Zhang Guangzhi, editor-in-chief: "History of Exchanges of Chinese and Foreign Historiography in Modern Times", Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2020, pp. 1121-1123.

[62] [Qing Dynasty] Xu Jizu: "Annotation of Yinghuan Zhi", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2006, page 139.

[63] Same as above, page 119.

[64] Guo Liping: "The Unparalleled and the Unparalleled Learning: Research on Northwest Historical and Geology in the Middle Qing Dynasty", Beijing: Life, Reading, and New Knowledge Sanlian Bookstore, 2007, pp. 148-149.

[65] For example, Guo Shuanglin's "Geography of the Late Qing Dynasty under the turmoil of the Western Tide", Beijing: Peking University Press, 2000, page 86; Guo Liping's "The Terrible Domain and the Skills: Research on Northwest Historical Geology in the Middle Qing Dynasty", page 235.

[66] Two famous sayings that future generations talk about were published by Lin Zexu.First, I answered questions from guests when I was pardoned, "The Russian and barbarians will encircle my border in the northwest, and the south can be connected from Yunnan, which is connected by land, so it is hard to prevent it." Second, "Is it a Chinese patient in the end? Is it Russia?" In fact, the source of these two sentences is the possibility of rumors from later generations. The first sentence comes from the "Secret Records of Seens and Experiences" written by Ouyang Yu, a literati born in 1838, published before the September 18th Incident; the second sentence comes from the 25th volume of "A Brief History of the State Dynasty" compiled by Li Yuandu, aide of Zeng Guofan in the third year of Tongzhi (1864). The author of "Search and News" was active in the Tongzhi era when Russia's invasion was rampant. This note repeatedly expressed his vigilance against the imperial Russia that accelerated its expansion after the serf reform. He used Lin Zexu's mouth to propose to prevent Russia, which was suspected of experiencing the present and ancient times. "A Brief History of the State" itself records a large number of rumors and was published in a special historical period of the Republic of China. Among them, prophetic rumors about being alert to the great powers should not be believed as conclusive historical facts. The two quotations were accepted in the "Lin Zexu Chronicle" (Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1981) compiled by Mr. Lai Xinxia in 1981, but the records of these two quotations were removed in the revised, newly compiled and re-edited "Lin Zexu Chronicle (Added Version), "Lin Zexu Chronicle New Version" and "Lin Zexu Chronicle Long Version" revised, newly compiled and re-edited after 1985.

[67] "Tomb Table of He Jun, the Minister of Justice", written by Huang Pengnian of [Qing Dynasty]: "Taolou Wenchao", engraved in the 12th year of the Republic of China, Volume 7.

[68] Same as above.

[69][Qing Dynasty] Binchun et al.: "Notes on the Cycle (External Type)", Changsha: Hunan People's Publishing House, 1981, page 40.

[70][Qing Dynasty] Zhang Deyi wrote: "Saying the Strange Stories of Navigation", manuscript, Volume 3.

[71][Qing Dynasty] Miao Yousun: "Compilation of Russian Travel", Changsha: Yuelu Bookstore, 2016, Chinese version, pp. 168-169.

[72][Qing Dynasty] Miao Yousun: "Compilation of Russian Travel", pages 37-38.

[73] Same as above, page 82.

[Author Profile] Kong Yuan, lecturer at the School of History of Capital Normal University

[Project Information] This article is the mid-term result of the 2019 National Social Science Fund Youth Project "Research on the Inter-ethnic, Transcontinental and Cross-cultural Characteristics of Early Interaction between China and Russia in the 17th Century" (Project Approval No.: 19CSS033).

[Citation Information] "Russian Research" No. 2, 2021, pp. 111-133.