Buddha Kingdom is another name for Dunhuang . Even in contemporary times, the builders of Dunhuang city have been working hard to build this place into a place where gods and Buddhas meet. The flying sky that sprinkled with flowers and rain when the Buddha preached is the symbol of this city. Sculptures at the intersection, decorations on street lights, hotel lobby, restaurant signs, and even bricks on the road. Their light and floating graceful figures fly in every corner of the city. It seems that the Buddha under the robe and two trees came from India across time and space to preach the teachings in the face of tourists here.
So, it is no wonder that travelers who come to Dunhuang today have a pilgrimage mood of judging miracles. The center of the pilgrimage is Mogao Grottoes. On the majestic and continuous cliff walls, the Mogao Grottoes covered with Buddhist niches are now a symbol of Dunhuang. In the documentary "Dunhuang", shot in 2010, Mogao Grottoes are almost equivalent to Dunhuang. This place where thousands of Buddhas gather makes Dunhuang a veritable Buddha land. But as already described above, Dunhuang is not only Mogao Grottoes. Similarly, in Dunhuang, Mogao Grottoes are not the only Thousand Buddha Caves. At the other end of the place where it is located, Mingsha Mountain, , there is also a cliff covered with caves, called " Xiqian Buddha Cave ".
Written by | Li Xiaen
01
West Thousand Buddha Cave
Although the name "Xi Qian Buddha Cave" is obviously a escort centered on "Thousand Buddha Cave" Mogao Grottoes. However, according to literature, its excavation time was longer than that of Mogao Grottoes. The "Shazhou Tujing" in the early Tang Dynasty quoted a "Shengyu" written during the Wei and Jin Dynasties, saying that "The Han Dynasty... built a Buddha niche, and the people gradually built camps." It seems that in the Han Dynasty, some people had already begun to build Buddhist niches here. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Dunhuang had indeed become a Buddhist country in the northwest. "Book of Wei·Shi Laozhi" describes Dunhuang in the late 16 Kingdoms era: "Having Zhanggui, Liangzhou, , has believed in Buddhism in the world. Dunhuang is connected to the Western Regions, and the Taoist customs are intertwined. Its old style is associated with villages and docks, and there are many pagodas and temples." In 400 AD, the eminent monk Faxian and his party arrived in Dunhuang. After one month of cultivation in Dunhuang, he went west to the desert and began his epic journey west to seek the Dharma.
Xiqian Buddha Cave
In the "Records of the Buddha Kingdom" where Faxian records his journey to seek the Dharma, a Buddhist holy land - a grotto. These caves were the places where the Buddha meditated and entered into meditation and Arhats gathered sutras. Some of them were natural caves, but they were also artificially dug stone chambers. After the Buddha's death, these caves, which are holy sites, often worship Buddha shadows or Buddha statues. This habit of chiseling mountains into caves also spread to the Dunhuang region through Central Asia. The excavation of the Xiqian Buddha Cave may be the replica version of the cave seen by Faxian in Dunhuang. It was just that it had started construction long before Faxian went west. Then, in 366 AD, 34 years before Faxian traveled west from Dunhuang to seek Dharma, a monk named Le Di first "created a cave" and then a Zen master named Faliang came here from the east and "weaved it next to Master Li Di's niche." The era of Buddhist kingdom in Dunhuang was opened.
However, visitors to the Xiqian Buddha Cave may be disappointed by this place, although the scenery here is more beautiful than Mogao Grottoes, with ancient trees and winding rivers, which is more in line with the image of the Pure Land of Buddha in people's hearts. However, after counting, there are only 16 caves here. The earliest cave 7 was built in the late Northern Wei Dynasty, which was nearly 80 years later than the earliest cave 275 in the Northern Liang period of the Mogao Grottoes. And this is still the only fruit of the Xiqian Buddha Cave. Visitors will find that there are many caves on the cliffs of Xiqian Buddha Cave, which are covered with gravel and sand. They are caves of the past. The erosion of wind and sand for thousands of years has already made them extremely dangerous. The flood caused by heavy rains in summer has given them a fatal blow. Many caves were destroyed, most likely including the Buddhist niche recorded in the literature that was excavated in the Han Dynasty.
The natural landscape around the Xiqian Buddha Cave.
But even so, the Xiqian Buddha Cave still preserves some subtle details that are difficult to see in Mogao Grottoes. In the top corner of Cave 7, half of the flying sky was left, and the vermilion contour was still left on the wall, but the painter did not add eyebrows, eyes, clothes and colors to it.This strange red line draft has been preserved for thousands of years. Also unfinished, there is also a half-shaped Buddha statue. Wooden sticks and straw that act as skeleton structures emerge from the wrapped mud body, looking at the confused visitors with a grin. Although these semi-finished products allow you to understand the initial process of the beautiful Dunhuang murals, for imaginative visitors, they are more like reluctant craftsmen on strike and protesting their unfair treatment.
Cave washed down by the flood.
The unknown craftsman can be said to be a group portrait of craftsmen in Dunhuang Grottoes . It is not uncommon to find people's names in the murals of the cave. There are always long lists with colors next to those supporters under the murals and write their names on them. Unless time erodes these ink marks, their names will eventually remain in the world. But they are just investors. The real creator rarely leaves his name. In the murals of Cave 290 in Mogao Grottoes, the names Xin Zhaohe and Zheng Luoren appear. Modern scholars believe that they should be the names of painters, but these names are not formally written on the title next to the offeror, but are covered under the mural layer. This can make people feel a helplessness in the face of their own works but want to leave a name. The only bold painter has a domineering name: "Pingduzi". He generously signed his name next to a statue of monks offering to Cave 303 of Mogao Grottoes, and the words were written even bigger than the portrait: "The monk was very happy, so he wrote a character. The painter Pingduzi."
Historical Materials of Dunhuang Craftsmen, Book Movies
But except for this Ping Duzi and the other 12 painters who hid his name on the lower floor of the mural, it is difficult to find the name and name left by the author on his creation. However, some documents leave behind the details of these craftsmen’s life, but many of them are sour. In a document titled "Zhao Sengzi Dian'er Creation in the Year of Yiwei" (P.3964), a sculptor named Zhao Sengzi had no repair tools and had to mortgage "a man born in his genius" to Li Qianding, a wise man in his family for six years in exchange for "Wheat 2 shrine, millet 2 shrine". In the Constitution, Zhao Sengzi had to promise that "if a person who is sick, sore or died of illness in the body of a man, he will take it from the face of his brother and a slave." On the far left is the picture of him and his son.
"Craftsmen should not learn skill, as skill is used by others. They are self-slaves, and their wives are servants of the official family." He lamented in the poem volume (S.5641) of the famous 7th-century oil-producing poet Wang Fanzhi discovered in the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang. When today's tourists are amazed and worshipped in front of the 35.3-meter-high Maitreya Buddha statue in the Great Buddha Cave, it may be hard to imagine that such a magnificent statue was also built by a craftsman who is small or even less identifiable.
The semi-finished "Flying Sky" on the top of the west wall of Cave 9 of the West Thousand Buddha Cave.
02
Mogao Grottoes
0 The strong contrast between greatness and insignificance is presented to the world in this shocking way. It has to be admitted that this is exactly the effect that was expected to be achieved during the construction of this great Buddha. This Maitreya Buddha, built by lowly craftsmen, is a generous gift from Dunhuang officials to the supreme ruler of the imperial capital thousands of miles away. In the 695th year of building the Buddha, the empress had just added the terrifying title of "Ci's Yuegu Jinhuang Holy Emperor" to her apology of the ministers. "Ci" is the Chinese name of Maitreya. If you look at the " Shazhou Governor's Office Tujing " compiled during this period, you will see that in this competition where the whole country praises the supreme ruler, Dunhuang, as a famous city on the northwest border, is also not behind. The auspiciousness that proves the king's sage virtues are created in batches. A villager named Yin Sijian found a five-colored bird with "a crown on its head, five-colored wings and five-colored tail on its head, and barefoot on its elixir, and barefoot on its elixir. There are also "flocks of birds followed, with green, yellow, red, white and black". The bird was quickly explained by the official as "a bird with joy in the world, and the world has the truth, so it is seen."On the other side, officials claimed that on the day of the winter solstice, they saw "five-colored clouds supporting the sun, and the width was one meter high, and the time was bright", which was naturally "the talisman for His Majesty the Holy Emperor to receive the order." Among these auspicious auspicious reports in Dunhuang, even a wolf with albinism. However, because this wolf did not harm humans and animals, it was promoted as "the white wolf saw it, the dogs were uniform, the heaven showed that His Majesty was benevolent, wise, and accurate, and the rules were accurate. It was a battle for the four barbarians to be complimented." The official's memorial also included a song that was claimed to be taken from the chant of the people: "The Holy Mother, the Emperor, is in the four directions, east, west, south, and north, and is unwilling to accept it" - Such four-character flattery with clear and rhymes is obviously impossible to come from the simple and simple people with less than 5% of the literacy rate at that time.
The Maitreya Buddha built in the Wu Zetian era, also known as the "Beijing Buddha", is taken from the TBS documentary "World Heritage Site·Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes".
But from another perspective, the rise and fall of the Thousand Buddha Cave in Dunhuang is indeed closely related to power. The construction of caves is largely based on political means. Among the earliest existing Beiliang Grottoes, the sculptures of Maitreya Bodhisattva sitting on the cross-legged foot account for a large proportion, because Juqu Mengxun, the monarch of Beiliang who occupied this place, is a devout believer of Maitreya. His cousin Juqu Jingsheng is the translator of the classic "The Buddha's Words on the Contemplation of the Tushita Sutra of Maitreya Bodhisattva's birth to the Tushita Sutra". The prosperity of Mogao Grottoes in the Northern Dynasties was also due to two officials stationed in Dunhuang. After the Northern Wei master Yuan Rong became the prefect of Dunhuang, he was named King of Dongyang. During the 20 years he ruled by Dunhuang, the opening of caves and niches of Mogao Grottoes reached a climax. Following the Maitreya Buddha in the Wu Zetian era, another Maitreya Buddha began to be built in the south of it in 721. Although it was claimed in the document "Mogao Grottoes" (P.3720) discovered in Dunhuang that this Buddha was built by the monks and villager Ma Sizhong and others who made a vow, it is also necessary to note that its construction time was the ninth year when Emperor Xuanzong of Tang started the Kaiyuan period.
Cave 130 of the Buddha, also known as the Southern Great Statue, was under renovation, and was built during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty. Photo provided by Mr. Bao Mingjie.
The supreme ruler's powerful power has created the most magnificent Buddha and the most gorgeous cave in Dunhuang. The prosperity and decline of power also enveloped the shadow of decline over Dunhuang. A Tubo document (P.1283) found in Mogao Grottoes reflects the treacherous atmosphere in the troubled times. This Tubo document was a report written by five Sogdians to their leaders. In this report, it is mentioned that Shandong was occupied by a warlord named Zhang Zhongzhi. Under his rule, "the residents' jaws pressed against their chests and would exchange their elderly parents for cooking and killing and eating meat." Zhang Zhongzhi here refers to Li Baochen who later became the governor of Chengde Army and the governor of . Zhang Zhongzhi is his original name, and he has changed his name three times in his life. As a favorite minister of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, he was named Zhang Zhongzhi. After defecting to An Lushan , he was adopted by him and changed his name to An Zhongzhi. In 755, An Lushan rebelled, and An Zhongzhi became his capable general. However, with An Lushan being killed, the Anshi Rebellion gradually settled, and Zhang Zhongzhi changed his lord again and joined the Tang court. He was named the governor of Chengde Army by Emperor Suzong of Tang, and was given the surname Li and changed his name to Li Baochen. As a result, he cedeed the land in Shandong, established an independent regime against the Tang court, and colluded with other Jiedushi, thus beginning the vassal state rebellion that lasted for two centuries.
Dunhuang at this time was also turbulent with the fall of the Tang Empire. The reason why this letter was written in Tubo was because Dunhuang was swallowed up by Tubo, who took advantage of the situation after the Anshi Rebellion. The time when it was born was the most chaotic era in Dunhuang. Other documents in Dunhuang show that in the past seventy years of Tubo's rule, local commercial trade almost returned to a barter state, and food became the only currency, people exchanged grain for daily necessities, and also used food to pay off their debts.
The nine-story landmark building of Mogao Grottoes, also known as the "Big Buddha Pavilion"
The close-up of the big head of the Maitreya Buddha built in the Wu Zetian era, taken from TBS's "World Heritage Site. Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes".
This period of occupation was ended in 848, and at this time, the internal land of Tubo collapsed. A Han general named Zhang Yichao took the opportunity to gather troops to drive the Tubo people out of Dunhuang.His proud power in commanding the army was drawn on the wall of Cave 156 in Mogao Grottoes. This cave is therefore called Zhang Yichao Cave. Zhang Yichao could have been like Li Baochen, cedeed the land and competed with the Tang court. But he chose to submit to the Tang court, and requested to obtain the official position and legal identity of the court, use the year name and calendar issued by the court, and follow the official statement of the Tang court, and even entrusted the military and political power to his nephew Zhang Huaishen , and went to the imperial capital city of 69 years old in person. The army he led was named "Guiyi Army" by the Tang court, commending Zhang Yichao's loyalty and righteousness to the court.
A portrait of the Zhongyi family was painted on both sides of the corridor of Cave 98 in Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang. At the front is the founder Zhang Yichao, followed by his legal heir Zhang Huaishen, followed by Suoxun , who was the brother-in-law of Zhang Huaishen's younger brother Zhang Huaiding. From 892 to 894, he served as the governor of Guiyi Army. These portraits give people the illusion that they feel that the transfer of power within the family is quite stable. But in fact, behind this portrait of Yiyi Lele is a game of throne of murder and betrayal. Zhang Yichao himself died in Chang'an, and soon after, civil strife broke out in the Zhang family. First, Zhang Huaishen's two concubines killed his parents and six brothers. But the two murderers did not successfully seize power, and they were wiped out by Zhang Yichao's son Zhang Huaiding, who died suddenly after only one year in power. It was not his son who succeeded him, but his brother-in-law Soxun. But eleven months later, Soxun was overthrown by Zhang Yichao's 14th woman. This capable woman pushed her nephew, Zhang Yichao's grandson, to the throne of the governor, claiming to restore the rule of the Zhang family, but let his three sons take real power and carry Zhang Chengfeng as a puppet. Two years later, Zhang Chengfeng launched another coup, ending his aunt's rule.
"The Age of Divine Texts", written by Sun Yinggang, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, January 2014 edition
At this time, the Tang Dynasty also headed towards its end. In 908, two years after the fall of the Tang Dynasty, the people of Dunhuang realized that the dynasty they had allegiance to was no longer there. Zhang Chengfeng immediately proclaimed himself the "Son of Emperor in White" of Gold Mountain. But the self-proclaimed emperor did not receive the protection of God. Three years later, he had to bow to the Uighurs who were stepping forward. Three years later, he was replaced by his subordinates, Shazhou Changshi Cao Yijin . The Cao family decided to regard the Central Plains dynasty as the official, no matter which Central Plains dynasty was. This ensured that Cao's power in Dunhuang lasted for 116 years. The mural depicting Zhang Yichao and his son and Suo Xun's Jiyi Army governors was a masterpiece he ordered to draw. Opposite this mural is a mural of the Cao family.
But what about the fate of the craftsmen who painted these murals in this troubled time? Fortunately, both the occupiers of Tubo and the rulers of the Guiyi Army needed craftsmen to build their own temples and whitewash the Buddhist temples and caves they offered. All of these construction projects required craftsmen to complete. In a document titled "The Account of the Banquet of Dutouzhi in June of Dingwei" (P.2641), these craftsmen received treatment for working for the Guiyi Officer's Office. Two masons gave birth to two Hu cakes at noon for seven days, and were eaten and cut. The blacksmith Shi Nunu and two others ate the Hu cakes at noon for three Hu cakes at noon for one day. They were served." Although it was not abundant, they were enough to fill their stomachs.
This seems to prove that compared to those powerful families who spend huge amounts of money to create Buddha statues to modify the Buddha cave, gods and Buddhas prefer these humble craftsmen who personally use their hands to shape and depict their figures. In the so-called Saha world of Buddhism, power is like passing clouds and mists, and only the exquisite art created by superb craftsmanship will be passed down from generation to generation.
Portrait of the Zhang family’s military governors on the north wall of the corridor of Cave 98 of Mogao Grottoes.
03
million Foxia
the Guiyi Army era is considered to continue the legacy of Dunhuang in the Tang Dynasty. Although the Silk Road declined with the fall of the Tang Dynasty, Dunhuang still retained a certain open and grand spirit. However, political chaos swallowed its vitality. In 1036, Xixia captured Dunhuang. From then on, Dunhuang's history entered a semi-dark state.But there is not no light to follow in the darkness. This light comes from another canyon east of Mogao Grottoes. There are also hundreds of caves on the cliffs on both sides of the canyon. In 1074, Huicong, a monk stationed here, wrote an inscription in the corridor of Cave 16, depicting the canyon in his eyes:
"The valley flows sweetly and water long, trees are thick, holy cigarettes rise during the day, and bright lights appear after the night."
Exterior view of Yulin Cave.
This is Wanfo Gorge, which is called Yulin Cave today. Compared with the glorious and brilliant nature of Mogao Grottoes under the protection of power, Wanfo Gorge is more like a dignified lady raised in the deep boudoir and few people know it. Compared with the hustle and bustle of tourists in front of Mogao Grottoes, this place is a quiet place. Even on summer noon, you can hear the surging rivers passing through the valley. Because there are cliff walls on both sides of the canyon, the murals here are less exposed to wind erosion and sunlight. If it were not for those kind and devout believers and craftsmen of the Qing Dynasty who used their poor and rough skills to repair some murals, then their glory would be even more eye-catching. The most amazing thing is the Western Xia murals. It is true that the records left by this dynasty here are too rare: Xiyu, Weiming, Zamo, Bocun, Manize, and Gupi. Only these names written in the Western Xia text and inscriptions witness the marks left by this dynasty here. But this blank space just gives people unlimited imagination space. It makes people willing to imagine what kind of people are and when, leaving these fascinating masterpieces in this place.
Cave 3 of Yulin Cave Manjushri Samantabhadra became a detailed Shancai boy.
When you stand in front of the huge mural of Manjushri Samantabhadra's transformation in Cave 3, you will suspect that you have misled into another strange space between the mundane and the sacred. Although the Tang Dynasty murals in Mogao Grottoes are gorgeous and magnificent, their rich and exaggerated colors are dazzling. But when you stand in front of it, you will clearly know that you are in a treasure house of art that can only be viewed from afar and cannot be blasphemed in front of you. It was the sound of colors and lines, singing and dancing.
But as you stare at the murals in Cave 3, the hustle and bustle of color disappears, replaced by a tranquil invitation that invites you into the murals. This kind of tranquility and human charm lies in the almost realistic sense of truth. Although it is clear that the mural depicts the world of Buddha's kingdom, if you look closely, the gods and strange beasts on the picture are like the human world. The wrinkles on the Bodhisattva's body, the boy Shancai who clasped his hands toward the Buddha, and even the Moji fish in the sea. If one of the fish had not had an eye on the forehead, it would be almost the same as an ordinary carp. The peaks of Wutai Mountain and Jiuhua Mountain and Jiuhua Mountain are towering, like the scenery on earth, and the pavilions and pavilions in the mountains are as realistic as standing at the foot of the mountain looking at the temples on the mountain. The detailed water patterns and the surging sound of the river in the canyon seem to be really flowing. If the lotus blooming is not exaggerated, it will be no different from the lotus growing in the river.
And the most wonderful thing about this painting is a monk standing on a cliff on the river bank, holding his hands together to worship the Bodhisattva. Behind him was a white horse, and the scriptures carried by the white horse emitted seven colors of auspicious light. And standing beside the horse to guard the scriptures was a man-like monkey. There is no doubt that they are the most famous pair of partners in China, Tang Monk who went to the West to obtain scriptures and his apprentice Sun Wukong .
The famous Tang Monk’s journey to the scriptures.
Why did this pair of master and apprentice appear on this mural? In a sense, this mythical story is indeed a history that took place in Yulin . On the way to Wanfo Gorge, you will pass by a huge ruin. This site, known as "Suoyang City", is the former site of Guazhou City in the Tang Dynasty. This is an important place for Master Xuanzang to travel west to seek the Dharma in " Journey to the West ". It was during Xuanzang's stay here to preach that he accepted a Hu disciple named Shi Pantuo, and he was the historical prototype of Sun Wukong.
History has become a legend, and legend has become a classic again.Just as the Buddha was a wise man and teacher who really existed in history, he was given supernatural powers and became a legendary figure, and his life and words also became classics. There may be only a thin curtain of time between the mortal world and the Buddha's kingdom. Just uncover it gently and the two will blend together. Although this is just a simple truth, it is still necessary to break it out in this holy place in the Buddha Kingdom, which is known by the world as Wanfo Gorge: the Buddha Kingdom is in the human world.
Details of the Bodhisattva gesture in the mural.
The main reference books of this article:
There are 26 reference books in this article, and the 12 most important ones are listed in the order of reference. These 12 books are also important works for studying Dunhuang science.
Zhao Xiaoxing: "Dunhuang Grottoes Beyond Mogao Grottoes", Gansu People's Fine Arts Publishing House, 2018
Jiang Liangfu : "Mogao Grottoes Year", Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1985
Ma De: "Research on the History of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang", Gansu Education Press Publishing House , 1996
Ma De: "Historical Materials of Dunhuang Craftsmen", Gansu People's Publishing House , Gansu People's Publishing House , 1997
Li Zhengyu: "Eight kinds of ancient Dunhuang local chronicles"; Gansu People's Publishing House, 2008
Yu Xin : "Dunhuang's natural world", Gansu Education Press, 2013
Sun Yinggang: "The Age of Divine Texts: Prophecies, Divination, Mathematics and Middle Ages", Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2015
Rong Xinjiang: "Guiyi Military History Research: A Study on Dunhuang History in the Tang and Song Dynasties", Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2015
Shawutian: "Archaeology of Dunhuang Grottoes in the Guiyi Army Period", Gansu Education Press, 2017
Feng Peihong : "Dunhuang's Age of Guiyi Army", Gansu Education Press , 2013
Chen Dawei: "Research on Dunhuang Monks in the Five Dynasties and Early Song Dynasty in the Late Tang Dynasty", Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2014
Cai Tieying, Wang Yi: "Report on Field Inspection of Journey to the West", Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House, 2018
Ota Tatsuo: "Research on Journey to the West", Fudan University Press, 2017
Thanks to Mr. Ma De and Mr. Li Xin for supporting and criticizing the information provided by this article.
Author: Li Xiaen
Editor: Xu Yuedong
