Chapter 1 Introduction to basic real estate
Section 1Real estate and real estate
1. The concept of real estate
Real estate is the general term for real estate and real estate. It is materially composed of land and buildings and structures on the land. In economics, it is also called real estate.
2. Concept and classification of real estate
Real estate: refers to land assets that can bring benefits to its rights holders or meet their rights holders' work or life needs.
Real estate type:
l Residential land: refers to the land for the residential building itself in the residential area, as well as road land, greening land and related public building land related to the building.
l Industrial land: mainly refers to industrial production land, including factories, power facilities, warehouses in industrial areas, railway lines and sanitary protection zones, etc.
l Warehouse land: refers to land specifically used to store various living materials and production materials, including national reserve warehouses, regional transit warehouses, municipal living supply service warehouses, dangerous goods warehouses, etc.
l Transportation land: refers to the land for urban external transportation facilities, including railways, highway lines and related protective areas.
l Municipal land: refers to land used to build various public infrastructure, including urban water supply, drainage, roads, bridges, squares, electricity, telecommunications, heating and other infrastructure use.
l Commercial service land: refers to land that provides various commercial and service industries for the entire city or community. Including shops, supermarkets, banks, hotels, entertainment venues, etc.
l Public greening land: refers to the real estate occupied by parks, forest parks, roads and green belts in the center of the streets in urban areas. This type of land is mainly used to improve the urban ecological environment and to provide residents with rest.
l Land for education, science, culture and health facilities: This type of land includes various large, middle and primary schools, independent land-use scientific research institutions, experimental stations, sports activity venues, health and medical institutions, etc.
l Port terminal land: mainly real estate for freight, passenger terminal, civil airport and other purposes.
l Military land: refers to land that provides services for military activities and is a special land.
l Other land: other urban land that does not belong to the above projects, including farmland, pastures, vacant land, etc. on the edge of the urban area.
3. Concept and division of land ownership
Land ownership: refers to the right of land owner to possess, use, profit and dispose of the land they own within the scope prescribed by law.
Land ownership can be divided into two categories: state-owned land and collective land.
State-owned land: refers to land that belongs to the state, that is, owned by the whole people. The state is the sole entity of state-owned land ownership. The land use unit or individual has only the right to use the state-owned land and has no ownership rights.
Collective land: land owned by rural residents' collective economic organizations, and the main body of collective land ownership is rural residents' collective economic organizations.
4. Real estate classification
Residential buildings: can be subdivided into ordinary residential buildings, high-end apartments, garden villas, etc.
Production housing: refers to the house used by various material production departments of society as basic production factors. Including factories, warehouses, laboratories, etc. used in production activities such as industry, transportation and construction: refers to houses that handle daily affairs and provide services for social and economic activities, such as government administrative departments, business departments, social groups, and enterprises, etc., which handle daily affairs and provide services for social and economic activities. It is also called office buildings.
Other buildings: Houses for various purposes other than the above types of buildings, such as foreign institutional housing, religious housing, etc.
5. Classification of property ownership
possession right: For the actual holding and control of the house, it is a prerequisite for the use of property.
Right to use: refers to the right to exercise the right to use according to the performance and purpose of the property to meet people's production and life needs.
Earning rights: refers to the economic income or benefits obtained by ownership, such as the rent collected by the house owner when renting the house.
Right of disposal: The right to determine the fact and legal form and direction of movement of property. Only the owner of the property has the right of disposal of property.
Section 2 Real Estate Market
1. The concept of the real estate market
Narrow sense concept: a place or place where real estate products conduct transaction activities.
Broadly meaning concept: including land transfer, transfer, mortgage, development, real estate transaction, leasing, transfer, exchange, mortgage, and some real estate-related labor activities such as development, construction, repair, and decoration.
2. Characteristics of the real estate market:
Immutability of business objects: The main business objects of real estate are the right to use real estate and land, while houses and land are real estate, and have physical properties that cannot be used for spatial displacement.
Diversity of circulation forms: refers to the specific form and method of real estate circulation. The main forms of urban housing circulation include sale, mortgage, pawn, trust, etc., and the main forms of urban land use rights circulation include transfer, transfer, rental, etc.
The unity of the market: refers to the integration of the real estate market and the real estate market. In real estate transactions, any real estate commodity transaction must be a transaction that integrates real estate.
Market regionality: This regionality is determined by the differences in real estate products. Due to its nature and the urban area in which it is located, there is often a big gap in its market supply and demand conditions and price levels.
The scarcity of supply: refers to the real estate market being a market with scarce supply. On the one hand, the population is increasing, and demand is also increasing accordingly. On the other hand, as a non-renewable resource, the amount of land is basically constant.
Incomplete development: Since two different rights and interests of land use rights and house ownership are circulated in the same market, in order to ensure the effective supply of the market, the country needs to take strong measures to curb unreasonable market demand to interfere with the market. Therefore, real estate market activities are strictly restricted by the government in some links and are incompletely open.
Insufficient market: Since the four conditions of the real estate market and the completely free competition market are far different, the real estate market is only an insufficient market.
The huge possibility of speculation in the real estate market: the real estate market is more speculative than other markets. The limitation of real estate commodity supply and unlimited demand, the continuous investment in real estate, the adjacent benefits caused by urban infrastructure construction and social facilities investment, and the preservation and appreciation characteristics of real estate all determine the huge possibility of real estate speculation.
3. Classification of the real estate market
(1) Primary real estate market: It is a land trading market, a vertical communication between land owners and users, and is directly controlled and monopolized by the government.
(2) Real estate secondary market: It is an incremental real estate trading market, referring to the vertical circulation market between real estate operators and real estate users.
(3) Real estate third-level market: that is, the existing real estate trading market, which is a market where real estate owners transfer real estate use rights or ownership rights, is a horizontal transaction between consumers, and is a reconfiguration of the consumer market.
4. Overview of the city's real estate market:
(1) Primary market:
Competent department: The approval and approval departments of the city's land transfer, transfer transactions.
Current status of land planning: The city's current urban planning status, including residential development, municipal construction and living
supporting facilities construction, etc.
Land transaction form: What are the current land transaction forms in this city, such as: bidding, auction, etc.
(2) Secondary market
now listed: the number of commercial housing units that have been registered in this city.
Supply and demand relationship status: the ratio of the supply of commercial housing to the estimated annual purchase volume of this city.
Average price: The average price of registered and listed commercial housing in this city.
Sales overview of real estate in each grade: The current commercial housing sold is divided into three grades according to the price standard, the price limits of each grade are clarified, and the sales status of commercial housing in each grade are analyzed.
(3) The tertiary market
is now listed: the number of second-hand houses that have been registered in this city.
Average price: The average price of second-hand houses sold now
Supply and demand relationship status: the ratio of the number of second-hand houses sold to the estimated purchase volume this year.
Mainstream real estate sales status: Based on the registration and transaction status, the sales status of mainstream second-hand houses are analyzed. Including: average price, location characteristics, consumer group characteristics, etc.
Section 3 Real estate consumption
1. Types of real estate consumption:
Investment type: The consumer entity of real estate consumption is not mainly for the purpose of using it for itself, but for
as an investment object, and changes the original real estate performance,
structure and form by investing funds, labor, technology and other factors, and obtaining profits through sale or rental.
Production type: The consumption of real estate is not for consumption, but as a place of production and business.
provides activity space or venue for production and business.
Consumption type: mainly used by state organs, public institutions and individuals for consumption. This type of property is mainly residential and office space.
2. Characteristics of real estate consumption
Universality: Real estate is both a means of living and a means of production, and is an indispensable spatial condition and activity base for people's lives.
Diversity: Real estate can be used in industrial production, commercial business activities and office buildings, etc., or as a place for urban residents to live, etc. Its multiple usage values and multiple utility provide real estate consumers with opportunities for choice and meet all aspects of real estate consumption.
irreplaceable and differentiated: the space and base provided by real estate for people is irreplaceable by other products. Its non-renewable nature determines the irreplaceability of consumption, and its fixed location determines the difference between real estates.
Continuity and discontinuity: The universality and irreplaceability of real estate consumption and the durability of its use value determine the continuity and discontinuity of real estate consumption. From the perspective of society as a whole, as long as the society is developing and the population is growing, demand will exist, reflecting its continuity. But from an individual perspective, since real estate is a durable consumer product, one purchase can meet long-term consumption and will not require continuous and continuous purchases to the market like other consumer products. It is intermittent.
Difference in consumption elasticity: Due to the different characteristics of real estate and its functions and uses, different real estates have different consumption elasticity. Under the market economy, real estate consumption is proportional to the income level, and its consumption elasticity is inversely proportional to the price elasticity.
Growthness: Generally speaking, consumption of real estate is always increasing, which is determined by social progress and the improvement of residents' living standards. This consumption can be divided into several levels: physiological consumption, safe consumption, social interaction consumption, value desire consumption, etc.
3. Factors affecting real estate consumption
(1) Level of economic and social development and urbanization
The more the economic and social development and the higher the level of urbanization, the greater the consumption of real estate. With the development of cities and the continuous increase in urban land area, cities' consumption of land and housing is becoming increasingly large.
(2) The population growth of urban population and living standards
The population of cities will also increase accordingly. In addition, the improvement of living standards will lead to greater consumption of urban land.
(3) Real estate price level
Like other markets, the price level has a great impact on real estate consumption. High prices will limit consumption of real estate, and low prices will increase consumption of real estate.
(4) National policy
National policies will have a huge impact on both productive consumption and consumer consumption of real estate. In particular, it plays a significant role in regulating the total balance and structural balance of real estate. The biggest impact on residents' housing consumption is the country's housing policies and various preferential policies related to housing.
(5) Urban industrial structure
The development of urban industrial structure not only determines the total amount of real estate consumption in cities, but also determines the consumption structure of the real estate industry.
(6) Consumers' forecast of economic development situation
Consumers' consumption will be restricted by the external environment, and the external environment affects whether the actual payment ability can be realized. If consumers’ forecasts for future economic development are optimistic, real estate consumption will grow, and if it is pessimistic, consumption will decrease.
Chapter 2 Real estate development and operation
Section 1 The main stages and basic procedures of real estate development and operation
1. The main stages of real estate development and operation:
According to the order of real estate production and reproduction operation, as well as the content of operation and management of each stage, real estate development and operation can be roughly divided into seven stages.
1, construction project establishment or operation process
2, real estate construction project planning and approval
3, land use rights acquisition
4, land acquisition and demolition
5, engineering construction and management
6, real estate rental and sales management
7, real estate property management
2. Basic procedures for real estate development and operation
1. Propose a letter of intent to establish a project and consult the municipal planning department.
2. Submit a project proposal to the Municipal Planning Committee and apply for project approval. If the project is large, you must submit it to the Planning Commission.
3. The Municipal Commission for Discipline Inspection and the Municipal Planning Management Department have studied and approved the project. If the project is approved, it will issue a project approval letter and require the construction unit to conduct a project feasibility study.
4. Applicants submit project feasibility study report to the Planning Commission and the Municipal Construction Committee.
5, Municipal Planning Commission, Construction Committee, Capital Planning and Construction Committee (hereinafter referred to as the First Planning Commission), and various professional bureaus, namely tap water management departments, gas management departments, etc., if the feasibility study is agreed, the review approval document will be issued and the planning and design task letter will be issued.
6. The applicant shall handle land acquisition and preliminary planning preparations based on the approval, and then go to the Urban Planning Administration Bureau (hereinafter referred to as the Municipal Planning Bureau) to receive a plan and design task notice and apply for land acquisition opinions.
7. The applicant goes to the land management department and the original land use department in the area where the land is located to solicit opinions. This stage can be divided into two situations:
The first situation: If the land used belongs to newly acquired land, that is, the land collectively owned by rural areas:
(1) Go to the district and county land management bureau (hereinafter referred to as the Land Bureau), the planning bureau, and the township government and village office of the used land for solicit opinions.
(2) Report the results of the solicitation of opinions to the Municipal Land Administration Bureau.
The second situation: If the land belongs to the area of the old city renovation area, that is, the city’s state-owned land:
(1) Go to the local district and county land management department for soliciting opinions.
(2) Report the results of the solicitation of opinions to the city’s real estate management bureau.
8. After the above seventh work is completed, the results will be submitted to the municipal government for approval. After approval by the municipal government, the land use procedures will be formally processed.
9. After receiving the approval from the municipal government on land use rights, the following three parts of the work will be carried out at the same time.
Part 1:
1. The bureau handles the planning land license
2. Apply to determine the planning and design conditions
3. Follow the planning and design conditions to the Municipal Public Utilities Bureau, Power Supply Bureau, Environmental Protection and Telecommunications Administration for consultation
4. After the planning and design conditions, the planning and design notice will be issued
5. According to the planning conditions notice, a qualified planning and design unit may be entrust a bidding method to select the planning and design unit for household design, and propose a planning and design plan
6. Go to the Planning Bureau to receive the design plan for review
7. The Planning Bureau reviews the planning plan and puts forward opinions on the plan for review
8. After the planning and design plan is designed, it is sent to the Planning Bureau for review. After the plan is passed, the construction drawing can be designed and submitted to the Planning Bureau for review. After the plan is approved, you will pay a deposit at the Urban Construction Archives and go to the Planning Bureau to obtain a construction project construction permit.
Part 2:
(1) Draw the pile position and give the pile driving conditions
(2) Entrust the surveyor to nail the pile and conduct surveying and mapping
(3) Submit the data collected from the pile driving to the design unit.
Part 3:
(1) With the planned land use license and land acquisition opinion, as well as the land use application report, the project feasibility report, planning and design plan, design notice issued by the Municipal Planning Bureau, the Municipal Planning Bureau, the company's articles of association, the business license copy, topographic map, etc., go to the Municipal Land Administration Bureau to handle land acquisition procedures. The land acquisition method adopts auction methods, bidding and tendering methods, and allocation methods according to the nature of the construction land. If arable land is occupied, arable land occupation tax will also be paid.
(2) After the project approval report is approved, you can go to the district and county land administration departments where the construction project is located to handle household registration freezing procedures, etc.
(3) The land administration department reviews the demolition and resettlement plan and issues a demolition license.
(4) Carry out three-way and one equal work on construction land, namely water, electricity, access to paths and land leveling, etc.
The specific work that needs to be completed here is:
a. Go to the Garden Bureau to apply for a tree cutter license;
b. Understand the line situation and negotiate the transformation and transfer plan with the Power Supply Bureau;
c. Current pipeline renovation of gas, roads, water supply and other conditions;
d. Go to the Power Supply Bureau to apply for telegraph installation, make a formal power supply plan, apply for temporary power use in construction, and entrust construction.
10. After completing the above tasks, you can carry out preparations before construction.
Part 1:
(1) Go to the tax bureau to receive the tax form;
(2) Go to the district planning committee to obtain the investment license registration card, register and obtain the license.
Part 2:
(1) Apply to the Municipal Planning Commission for inclusion in the plan (this application must be signed by the Construction Committee)
(2) Get the start-up approval form from the Municipal Construction Commission Engineering Department
(3) Take the start-up approval form to various professional companies to apply for municipal supporting projects (spring, drainage, heat, gas, electricity, telecommunications) registration work. After the registration work is completed, the official seal is stamped on the start-up certificate and pay the four-source fee (the four-source fee refers to tap water construction fee, sewage treatment fee, heating construction fee, and gas construction fee. All are collected in square meters of construction)
If it is a public construction part, the collection standard is determined based on the usage amount, and it is generally paid before the municipal project starts.
(4) Verify the task of the Municipal Construction Committee’s competent department
(5) Go to the Municipal Construction Committee Engineering Office to handle the bidding approval procedures
(6) Fill in the bidding application form and go to the Municipal Tendering Office to handle the bidding registration
(7) Organize the bidding office and bidding units to inspect the on-site
(8) Pre-qualification of the construction unit
(9) Conduct budget review and review the bidding base
(10) Tendering office review the bidding base
(11) The construction unit organized the bidding office and each bidding unit to hold a bid opening meeting
(12) Prepare a bid evaluation report, determine the best construction unit after bid opening evaluation, issue a bid winning notice
(13) The construction unit is officially determined with the approval of the bidding office
11, complete the above work, and the construction preparation work is about to come to an end. At this stage, the following tasks need to be done:
(1) Entrust the Quality Supervision Station and the Supervision Company to carry out project quality supervision
(2) Go to the Municipal Bureau of Statistics to implement the task
(3) The Municipal Audit Bureau reviews the source of funds, tasks and all procedures
(4) Register and file
12 at the Secretariat of the Municipal Development Office. Complete the above work, the construction preparation work is over, and you will get the start-up certificate at the Municipal Construction Committee and enter the project construction stage.
Part 1: Organize the design of various municipal pipelines
Part 2: Notify the landscaping authority to handle the greening procedures of the community
Part 3: Construct according to the road plan, go to the competent department of the Municipal Planning Bureau to apply for a road construction permit
Part 4:
(1) Handle the design of tap water pipelines, go to the Municipal Office of the Municipal Planning Bureau to apply for a water pipeline construction permit
(2) Process the design of the sewage pipeline, go to the Municipal Department of the Municipal Planning Bureau to apply for a sewage pipeline construction license
Part 5: Entrust the thermal company to design the thermal line, and go to the Municipal Department of the Municipal Planning Bureau to apply for a thermal pipeline construction license.
Part 6: Entrust a gas company to design the gas pipeline and apply for a gas pipeline construction permit at the Municipal Office of the Municipal Planning Bureau.
13. After the civil engineering project is completed, the construction unit organizes the construction of various municipal supporting projects. After completion, organize the construction unit, design unit, quality supervision unit and other relevant management departments to conduct joint acceptance. It can be delivered and used after passing the qualification.
Section 2 Risks of real estate development and operation
1. Risks of real estate development and operation
1. Causes of real estate development and operation risks
(1) The immobility or fixedness of real estate location determines the non-displacement of real estate supply and demand in the region
(2) The long-term nature of real estate investment time determines the insensitiveness of real estate operations to changes in market supply and demand
(3) The fixed nature of real estate investment and operation determines the difficulty of real estate investment and operation
(4) The dispersion of real estate market information has different manifestations and functions at different stages
2, types of real estate development and operation risks
(1) Natural risks of real estate management: It is the risk caused by natural disasters in the process of real estate management, such as earthquakes, floods, storms, fires, etc.
(2) Social risks in real estate management: It is divided into two aspects. One is caused by political reasons, such as the national political situation and political form, the country's macroeconomic policies and real estate policies. Second, it is caused by inappropriate or wrong behaviors of collective and individuals, such as theft, fraud, etc.
(3) Real estate management economic and market risks: it is caused by uncertain factors in the changes in the real estate market conditions.
(4) Real estate management technology risk: it is a risk caused by the progress of science and technology.
(5) Risks within real estate management companies.
3. Management methods for real estate operation risks
(1) will avoid risks. When making business decisions, enterprises are required to avoid risky or high-risk businesses and choose risk-free and low-risk businesses to achieve the purpose of avoiding business risks.
(2) Transfer risk. It is to transfer all or part of the risks that may occur in the business.
mitigates the loss of risk. Once operating risks occur, enterprises must do everything possible to take various effective measures to reduce the losses caused by risks.
(3) Insurance is implemented for business projects. Implementing insurance for business projects is a better way for operators to transfer risks. Although insurance also requires payment of fees, that is, insurance premiums, it is much smaller than the losses caused by risk once it occurs.
Section 3 Feasibility study of real estate development and operation
1. The concept of feasibility study
Feasibility study: It is an important link in modern business management activities and an important method of business management. Feasibility study on real estate management is a scientific method for comprehensive technical and economic analysis of business management projects before real estate management decisions.
2. Feasibility study stage
Feasibility study is roughly divided into three stages, namely the opportunity feasibility study stage; the preliminary feasibility study stage;.
(1) Opportunity feasibility study stage and its tasks
Its main task is to determine the business direction and propose business goals. For real estate business enterprises, it is to make suggestions on business management projects.
(2) Preliminary feasibility study stage
Its main task is to further study the scale of the business management project, the supply of building materials, the selection and site selection of investment locations, the design plan of the construction project, the construction progress of the project, etc. based on the results of the opportunity research stage.
(3) Final feasibility study stage
is the last stage of feasibility study. Its main task is to conduct detailed and in-depth analysis and demonstration of the technical, economic, and market aspects of the business management project, determine the main factors related to the business management project, and conduct careful investigation, analysis, calculation and evaluation of these factors. On this basis, it proposes a few optimal solutions to serve as the basis for decision-making of business management.
3. Feasibility study content
Feasibility study of real estate management Since there are many contents included, the traditional content can be attributed to different aspects according to different standards. However, the feasibility study of real estate management must include the following three aspects:
1, real estate market issues. Under the conditions of a market economy, production is to meet the needs of the market. So the first thing is to study whether there is a market and how large the market capacity is. Is there a market problem to solve the problem of whether there is a "necessity" in real estate management? Therefore, this question becomes the basis and prerequisite for all feasibility studies.
2. Engineering and technical issues. It mainly studies the high-tech content in planning and design and engineering technology, as well as the problems of whether the difficulties in planning and design engineering technology can be solved or overcome. This problem is to solve the "feasibility" problem of real estate management.
3. Economic benefits issues. It is to study whether the profit and the level of profit are achieved through the economic evaluation of real estate management. This is a problem of "reasonability" in real estate management or the ultimate goal of business operations.
4. Feasibility study report of real estate development project
1, background status of real estate business projects
2, overview of real estate business management projects
3, basic data of feasibility report
4, cost estimate of real estate business projects
5, fund raising and supply methods
6, resource procurement and supply
7, Market analysis of real estate management projects
8, financial evaluation of real estate management projects
9, risk analysis of real estate management
10, national economic and social evaluation
11, preliminary arrangements for real estate management projects start date, completion date and completion acceptance
12, conclusion.
Section 4 Commercial housing pre-order pre-sale management
Commercial housing pre-order pre-sale is actually futures trading in real estate. It sells the house in pre-sale before the real estate developers have built the house or before the property has been completed. That is, pay first and then deliver. In Hong Kong, it is also selling or speculating on real estate flowers.
1. Pre-sale housing conditions and procedures
〈〈Urban Real Estate Management Law of the People's Republic of China〉〉 Article 44 stipulates that pre-sale of commercial housing must meet the following conditions:
(1) Deliver all the transfer fee for use and select the land use right certificate.
(2) Having a construction project planning license
(3) Calculate based on the commercial housing provided pre-sale, the investment in development and construction funds reach more than 25% of the total investment in the project construction, and the construction progress and completion delivery date have been determined
(4) Apply for pre-sale registration to the real estate management department of the people's government at or above the county level and obtain a pre-sale license certificate for commercial housing.
2. Specific procedures for house pre-sale
(1) The real estate developer submits a house pre-sale application to the Municipal Real Estate Administration Bureau and submits the following relevant documents: enterprise development qualification certificate and business license; construction land approval documents issued by the land management department and construction license issued by the planning department; construction contract; certificate of completed investment amount and acceptance form for house foundation project; house pre-sale plan, including the location of commercial housing, total number of units, building area of each unit, sales time and location, etc.
(2) After approval by the real estate authority, the pre-sale unit and the pre-purchaser can sign a "House Pre-sale Contract".
(3) Manage house registration and certification.
(4) After the house is completed, the real estate developer shall go through the house delivery procedures in accordance with the "House Presale Contract". The buyer shall go through the property transfer procedures with the "House Presale Contract" and the house delivery certificate and pay the procedures.
Chapter 3 Basic knowledge of architecture
Section 1 Classification of buildings
1. Use classification and characteristics of buildings
Civil buildings: houses for people to live, live, and engage in various cultural welfare activities. According to their purpose, there are two types:
(1) Residential buildings: buildings for people to use for their daily life, such as residences, dormitories, hotels, and guesthouses.
(2) Public buildings: buildings for people to engage in social public activities and various welfare facilities, such as various schools, libraries, cinemas, etc.
Industrial building: a general term for various buildings and structures that people engage in various industrial production activities. These production buildings are usually called industrial plants. Including workshops, substations, boiler rooms, warehouses, etc.
2. Classification by the material of the building structure
1. Wood structure: The main load-bearing components of this type of house are composed of bricks and wood. Among them, vertical load-bearing components such as walls and columns are made of bricks, while horizontal load-bearing components are made of wood. This structural form has fewer floors and is mostly used in single-story houses.
2. Brick-concrete structure: The walls and columns of buildings are built with bricks, and beams, floors, stairs and roofs are made of reinforced concrete to form a brick-reinforced concrete structure. This structure is mostly used in civil buildings and small industrial factories with few floors (less than six floors), and is a structural form that is widely used at present.
3. Reinforced concrete structure: The beams, columns, floor slabs and foundations of the building are all made of reinforced concrete. Beams, floor slabs, columns and foundations form a load-bearing frame, so it is also called a frame structure. The walls only serve as enclosure and are built with bricks. This structure is used in high-rise or large-span housing buildings.
4. Steel structure: The beams, columns, roof stents and other load-bearing components of a building are made of steel, and the walls are made of bricks or other materials. This structure is mostly used in large industrial buildings.
3. Classification by the load-bearing method of building structure
1. Load-bearing wall structure
Its power transmission method is: the weight of the roof is borne by the roof stent (or beams and columns), the roof stent is supported on the load-bearing wall, and the weight of the floor is supported on the load-bearing wall by the beams and slabs that make up the floor stents. Therefore, the load on the roof and floors is borne by the load-bearing wall; there is a foundation under the wall, and the foundation is the foundation, and all the loads are transmitted from the wall and foundation to the foundation.
2, frame structure
main load-bearing system consists of beams and columns, but the beams and columns are rigidly connected (in reinforced concrete structures, they are usually welded by end steel bars and poured into concrete to form a whole), thus forming an integral rigid frame (or frame). Generally, multi-story industrial factories or large-scale high-rise civil buildings belong to frame structures.
3, rack structure
main load-bearing system consists of roof stents and columns. The top end of the roof strata is hinged (usually welded or bolted), while the lower end of the column is embedded in the foundation. This method is mostly used in single-story industrial factories.
4, other
Since urban development requires the construction of some high-rise and super-high-rise buildings, the above-mentioned structural forms are not enough to resist the role of horizontal loads (wind loads, seismic loads), so the shear wall structure system and barrel structure system have been developed.
4. Building height classification
Buildings can be divided into the following categories according to their number of floors
1, low-level: 2 and below 2
2, multi-level: above 2 layers, below 7
3, middle and high-level: above 7 ml, below 16 ml4
4, high-level: above 16 ml4
4, high-level: above 16 ml4
5, super high-level: above 24 ml4
Section 2 Overview of house structure
1. Building materials knowledge
Main building materials include cement, steel bars, wood, ordinary concrete, clay bricks, etc.
1, cement
(1) Common types of cement: silicate cement, ordinary silicate cement, slag silicate cement, volcanic ash silicate cement and fly ash silicate cement, five types of
(2) Cement label: Cement label represents the compressive resistance after cement hardening. Common cement numbers are for example: 325, 425, 525, 625, etc.
(3) Technical characteristics of commonly used cement
l Condensation aging: The setting time of cement is divided into initial setting and final setting. The time when the cement is initially condensed into cement and mixed with water until the cement slurry begins to lose its plasticity. Finally condensed into the time when the cement slurry starts to mix until the cement completely loses its plasticity and begins to produce strength.
l Volume stability: refers to the property of whether the volume changes uniformly during the hardening process of cement. Uneven volume changes occur after cement hardening, resulting in poor volume stability and cannot be used.
l Water heaterability: The hydration reaction of cement is an exothermic reaction. As the hydration process progresses, continuous release of heat is called water heating. The amount of heat released by water heating and the speed of heat release are mainly related to the cement label, mineral composition and fineness.
l Fineness: refers to the thickness of cement particles. The finer the particles, the higher the early strength. However, the finer the particles, the higher the production cost and are prone to moisture failure.
l Standard consistency water consumption: refers to the amount of water consumption when the cement mortar reaches the standard consistency. Standard consistency is the consistency specified by national standards when making cement stability and settling time.
2, steel bars
(1) Types of construction steel bars: Rebars are made of steel ingots hot rolled, so they are also called hot rolled steel bars. They are the most used steel varieties in construction projects.
can be divided into: round steel bars and ribbed steel bars according to their appearance.
can be divided into: carbon steel steel bars and ordinary low alloy steel bars according to their steel type.
can be divided into four levels according to strength: I, II, III, and IV. Among them, the I-grade steel bars are low-carbon steel bars, and the II, III and IV are low-alloy steel bars.
(2) Application of steel bars for construction
l Grade I steel bars are hot-rolled round steel bars, which have low strength and good plasticity and welding performance. Widely used in parts with less stress in ordinary reinforced concrete structures.
l The strength, plasticity, welding performance and other comprehensive usage indicators of grade II and grade III steel bars in deformed steel bars are good. They are the most used type of steel bars in ordinary reinforced concrete structures. They can also be used as prestressed steel bars after cold drawing.
l Cold-processed steel bars
Cold-pull steel bars: The yield of cold-pull steel bars will increase, while the plasticity will decrease. Cold-pull grade I steel bars are suitable for stressed parts in ordinary reinforced concrete. Cold-pull grade II, III and IV steel bars can all be used as prestressed bars.
Cold-drawn low-carbon steel bars: They have high tensile strength and are the main prestressed steel for small components.
3, wood
(1) Types of wood: divided into two categories: coniferous and broad-leaved trees. Among them, the trunk of the conifer tree is straight and tall, with straight texture, soft material and easy processing, and is the main material used in construction projects. The material of broad-leaved trees is relatively hard and is called hard material. They are mainly used in decoration projects.
(2) Performance and uses of building wood
l Red Pine: The material is soft, the texture is straight, it is not easy to warp or crack, there is a lot of resin, it is resistant to decay, and easy to process. It is mainly used for the production of doors and windows, roof struments, purlins, formwork, etc.
l Fish scale spruce: also known as white pine. The material is light, the texture is straight, the structure is fine, easy to dry and process, and is mainly used for the production of doors and windows, formwork, flooring, etc.
l Mastail pine: The material is medium hard, the texture is straight and oblique, the structure is medium to thick, it is not resistant to corrosion, the rosin smell is strong, it is very durable in water, and it is mainly used for the production of templates, doors and windows, citron strips, wooden pillars, etc.
l Larch: The material is hard and brittle, with a lot of resin, strong corrosion resistance, slow drying, and easy to crack during drying. Mainly used for branches, floors, wooden piles, etc.
l Fir: Straight and even texture, medium or thick structure, easy to dry, strong durability. It is mainly used for making roof slats, purlins, doors and windows, scaffolding poles, etc.
l Cypress: dense material, straight or oblique texture, fine structure, dry and easy to crack, tough and durable. Mainly used for making templates and wood decoration.
l pine: divided into fine skin and thick skin. The fine leather has a fine structure, is not easy to deform and is easy to process, and is suitable for decoration with higher requirements; the thick leather has loose structure, but the material is strong, and the deformation and shrinkage amount is small, which is suitable for decoration with low requirements.
(3) Category of wood
In order to use wood reasonably, wood is divided into logs, sugida strips, square materials, etc. according to different processing and use.
Logs refer to wood that is cut and pruned and cut into a certain length. Direct use of logs and processing logs.
Sumura root refers to fir that has only been pruned and peeled and has not been processed into timber. It has a length of more than 5M and a tip diameter of more than 60mm.
Plate square material refers to the plate and square material processed according to a certain size. A plate refers to the section width of three times or more than three times the thickness; a square material refers to the section width of less than three times the thickness.
4, ordinary concrete
(1) Ordinary concrete concept: it is mainly concrete composed of cement, ordinary gravel, sand and water. Among them, stones and sand play a skeleton role, which is called aggregate. Grounds are coarse aggregates, and sand is fine aggregates.After adding water to cement, cement slurry is formed, wrapped around the surface of the aggregate and filled the gaps between the aggregates. It serves as a lubricating material between the aggregates, making the concrete mixture suitable for construction and ease. After the cement is hydrated and hardened, the aggregates are glued together to form a solid whole.
(2) Performance of concrete:
l Concrete ease: refers to whether concrete is suitable for operation during construction and whether it has the properties that can make the cast members uniform in quality and compact in molding.
l Concrete strength: Compressive strength is the main strength index of concrete, which is much higher than other strengths of concrete. In the project, its compressive strength is mainly used, and it is also the main basis for structural design.
l The durability of concrete: The ability of concrete to resist erosion from various natural environments without being destroyed is called durability. In addition to having a certain strength and safe load bearing, concrete should also have durability, such as anti-seepage, frost resistance, wear resistance, weather resistance, etc.
5, clay bricks
Clay bricks are made of clay as the main raw material, stirred into plasticity, and mechanically extruded. The extruded soil block is called a brick blank. It is air-dried and sent into the kiln and calcined at a high temperature of 900-1000℃ to form a brick.
(1) Types of clay bricks:
l Standard bricks: Standard bricks are the most commonly used bricks in construction projects. They are widely used in brick-bearing walls and are also used in non-load-bearing fill walls. The dimensions of clay bricks are: 240mm×115mm×53mm. Each brick weighs about 2.5Kg when it is dry and about 3Kg after absorbing water.
l Hollow bricks and porous bricks: The specifications of hollow bricks are 190 mm×190 mm×90 mm, and each cubic meter weigh about 1100 Kg. The specifications of porous bricks are 240 mm×115 mm×90 mm, and weigh approximately 1400 Kg per cubic meter.
(2) Strength of clay bricks: The characteristics of clay bricks are high compressive strength and can withstand large external forces. The ability to reflect the external load-bearing force of the brick is called strength; while the level of strength is called strength. Which strength grade brick is used for a building should be determined by the design unit through calculation.
(3) Water absorption rate of clay bricks: Clay bricks have certain water absorption properties and can absorb a certain amount of water. The amount of water absorption can be expressed by the water absorption rate. The water absorption rate is generally allowed to be in the range of 8%-10%.
(4) The freezing resistance of clay bricks: refers to the ability of bricks to resist frost damage. Freezing resistance was made by experiments.
(5) Appearance quality of clay bricks: The appearance of ordinary clay bricks should be flat and square. The appearance has no obvious defects such as bending, missing corners, distortion, cracks, etc. It makes a crisp metal sound when hitting, and the color is uniform and consistent.
2. House structure components:
1. House components: foundation and foundation, wall or column, floor slab and floor, doors and windows, stairs, roofs, etc.
(1) Foundation and foundation:
Foundation: is the soil layer under the building. It bears the load of the entire building from the foundation, including the self-weight of the building, the weight of people and equipment acting on the building, and the wind and snow load.
Foundation: Located at the bottom of the wall column, it is the underground part of the building. It bears all the load on the upper part of the building and passes it to the foundation.
(2) Walls and columns: Load-bearing walls and columns are vertical load-bearing components of buildings. They bear the loads transmitted from the roof and floors to the foundation together with their own weight. In addition, the exterior wall can resist the invasion of wind, frost, rain and snow on the building, so that the interior has good living and working conditions, which is to act as a protective effect; the interior wall also cuts the interior of the building into several spaces to play a division role.
(3) Floor slabs and ground: Floor slabs are horizontal load-bearing components that mainly bear vertical loads acting on it, and transmit them together with their own weight to the wall or column. At the same time, the building is divided into several layers. The floor slabs also play a horizontal role in supporting the wall. The ground of the ground room is close to the foundation soil, bears the vertical load acting on it, and passes them directly to the foundation together with their own weight.
(4) Stairs: refers to the vertical transportation channel between floors.
(5) Roof: is the cover structural layer on the uppermost layer of the building, which is both a load-bearing component and an enclosure component. It bears various loads acting on it and transmits it to the wall or column together with the weight of the roof structure; at the same time, it also plays a role in insulation and waterproofing.
(6) Doors and windows:
Doors: are building accessories that provide people entering and leaving the house or room, and moving furniture, equipment, etc. Some doors have both lighting and ventilation.
window: its main function is ventilation and lighting.
Generally speaking, foundations, walls and columns, floors, floors, roofs, etc. are the main parts of the building; doors, windows, stairs, etc. are the auxiliary parts of the building.
2, foundation
(1) Types of foundation
According to the materials used, they are divided into: ash soil foundation, brick foundation, brilliance foundation, concrete foundation, and reinforced concrete foundation.
can be divided into: shallow foundation and deep foundation according to the buried depth. Those whose burial depth does not exceed 5M are called shallow foundations, and those whose burial depths do not exceed 5M are called deep foundations.
can be divided into: rigid foundation and flexible foundation according to stress performance.
can be divided into strip foundation, independent foundation, full-house foundation and pile foundation according to the structure.
Bar foundation: When a building uses a brick wall to bear the load, the foundation under the wall is often set continuously to form a long strip foundation
l Rigid foundation: refers to the foundation built by materials with high compressive strength and low bending and tensile strength. The materials used include concrete, bricks, matte stone, grey soil, tri-soil, etc., which can generally be used in civil buildings with six floors and below and lightweight factories with wall load bearing.
l Flexible foundation: The foundation built with materials with high tensile and bending strength is called the flexible foundation. Generally made of reinforced concrete. This foundation is suitable for situations where the superstructure is loaded relatively large, the foundation is softer, and the rigid foundation cannot meet the requirements.
Independent foundation: When the upper part of the building is a frame structure or a separate column, an independent foundation is often used; if the column is prefabricated, the cup-shaped foundation is used.
Full-tang foundation: When the load transmitted from the upper structure is very large, the foundation bearing capacity is very low, and the independent foundation cannot meet the foundation requirements, the lower part of the building is often made into a whole piece of reinforced concrete foundation to become a full-tang foundation. According to structure, it is divided into two types: cut-shaped foundation and box-shaped foundation.
l Cut-shaped foundation: It is a continuous foundation buried underground, suitable for situations where there are basements or foundation bearing capacity and high loads from the upper part.
l Box foundation: When the burial foundation is large and there is a basement, in order to increase the stiffness of the foundation, the basement base plate, top plate and wall are poured into an integral box foundation. The box-shaped internal space forms a basement, which has great strength and stiffness, and is mostly used in high-rise buildings.
pile foundation: When building relatively large industrial and civil buildings, if the weak soil layer on the foundation is thicker, shallow buried foundation cannot meet the foundation strength and deformation requirements, pile foundations are often used. The function of pile foundation is to transfer the load through the pile to the buried hard soil layer, or to the foundation through the friction force around the pile. According to the construction method, it can be divided into reinforced concrete prefabricated piles and cast-injected piles.
l Reinforced concrete prefabricated piles: This pile is prefabricated at the construction site or component site, and is driven into the soil with a pile driver, and then the reinforced concrete bearing platform is poured on the top of the pile. Its bearing capacity is large, not affected by changes in groundwater levels, and has good durability. However, transportation and lifting are difficult. The vibration is relatively large during pile driving, which has a certain impact on the surrounding houses.
l Reinforced concrete cast-injected piles: divided into three categories: casing-injected piles, drilling-injected piles, and explosive-expanded hole cast-injected piles.
(2) Buried depth of the foundation: The distance from the outdoor design floor to the foundation bottom is called the buried depth of the foundation. The burial of the foundation must have an appropriate depth, which not only ensures the safety of the building, but also saves foundation materials and speeds up the construction progress.The following conditions should be considered when determining the depth of building foundation burial:
l Influence of soil layer structure: The house foundation should be set on a solid and reliable foundation, and should not be set on a weak soil layer with low bearing capacity and high compression. The foundation burial depth is closely related to the soil layer structure.
l Effect of groundwater level: Groundwater has a great impact on the bearing capacity of certain soil layers. If the moisture content of clay soil increases, the strength will decrease; if the water level drops and the moisture content of the soil decreases, the foundation will decrease.
l Effect of frozen line: The dividing line between frozen soil and non-frozen soil becomes frozen line. When the foundation of the building is within the frozen soil layer, the freezing of the soil in winter will arch upwards; when the soil layer thaws, the foundation sinks again, making the house in an unstable state.
l The impact of adjacent buildings: If there are old buildings around a new house, in addition to determining the depth of the foundation based on the above conditions, the impact of the new house foundation on the old buildings should also be considered.
Wall
(1) Classification of walls:
can be divided into inner walls and outer walls according to their position in the plane. Any wall located around a house is called an exterior wall, and the wall located at both ends of a house is called a gable. Any wall located inside a house is called an inner wall. The exterior wall mainly plays a role in enclosure, while the interior wall mainly plays a role in separating the room. In addition, the walls arranged along the short axis of the building are called horizontal walls, and the walls arranged along the long axis of the building are called vertical walls.
can be divided into load-bearing walls and non-load-bearing walls according to their stress. A wall that directly bears the load from the upper part is called a load-bearing wall, while a wall that does not bear external loads is called a non-load-bearing wall.
According to the materials used, it is divided into: brick walls, stone walls, earth walls, blocks and large plate walls.
The walls that decorate the walls are called water-mixed walls; walls that only grout on the walls are not decorated with other decorations are called water-clear walls.
is divided into: solid wall, hollow wall and composite wall according to its structure. Solid walls are made of ordinary clay bricks or other solid bricks; hollow walls are hollow walls made of solid bricks or walls made of hollow bricks; composite walls refer to walls composed of bricks and other materials.
(2) Thickness of brick wall
l The thickness of brick wall meets the specifications of bricks. The thickness of a brick wall is generally expressed by the length of a brick, such as a half brick wall, a 3/4 brick wall, a 1 brick wall, a 2 brick wall, etc. The corresponding thickness is: 115mm, (called 12 walls) 178mm, (called 18 walls) 240mm, (called 24 walls) 365mm, (called 37 walls) 490mm, (called 50 walls)
l The wall thickness should meet the bearing capacity of brick walls. Generally speaking, the thicker the wall, the greater the load-bearing capacity and the better the stability.
l The thickness of the brick wall should meet certain requirements for insulation, heat insulation, sound insulation and fire protection. Generally speaking, the thicker the brick wall, the better the insulation effect.
(3) Liner beam and ring beam
Liner beam: Its function is to bear the upper load of the door and window openings and transfer the load to the walls on both sides of the opening. According to the materials used, it can be divided into:
l Reinforced concrete lintel: When the hole is wider (greater than 1.5M) and the upper load is large, reinforced concrete lintels should be used. The length of the two ends deep into the wall should not be less than 240 mm.
l Brick lintels: Common ones include flat arch brick lintels and arc arch brick lintels.
l Rebar brick lintel: Rebar brick lintel is a reinforced brick masonry that can withstand bending moments in the masonry above the door and window openings.
ring beam: In order to enhance the overall stiffness of the house and prevent the adverse effects of the uneven settlement of the foundation or large vibration load on the house, reinforced concrete or reinforced brick ring beams are often installed in the exterior walls and some interior walls of the house. It is generally located on exterior walls, inner longitudinal walls and main inner transverse walls, and a closed system is formed in the plane. The position and number of ring beams are determined based on the floor height, number of floors, foundation and other conditions.
Ground and floor slab
(1) Ground: refers to the floor on the ground floor of the building. It basically consists of three parts: surface layer, cushion layer and base layer. For grounds with special requirements, there are also structural levels such as moisture-proof layer, thermal insulation layer, and leveling layer.The surface layer on each floor is usually called a floor, and the role of the floor slab is similar to the cushion layer and the base layer in the ground.
l Surface layer: It is the place where people directly contact in daily life, work and production, and it is the ground and floor surface that directly bears various physical and chemical effects.
l cushion layer: Below the surface layer and above the base layer, it bears the load transmitted from the surface layer, and transmits the load evenly to the base layer.
l Base layer: The soil layer under the cushion layer is the base layer.
Types of ground:
l Overall ground: Its surface layer is a whole. It includes cement mortar floor, concrete floor, terrazzo floor, asphalt mortar floor, etc.
l block floor: its surface layer is not a whole, it uses the combination layer to paste or lay the surface layer blocks on the structural layer. Common types of blocks include: ceramic mosaic tiles, marble, fragmented marble, cement tiles, concrete and terrazzo prefabricated tiles, etc.
(2) Floor slab: is a partition load-bearing component, which divides the vertical direction of the house into several layers, and transmits the vertical loads such as people and furniture and the self-weight of the floor slab to the foundation through the walls, beams or columns. According to the materials used, they can be divided into: brick floor slabs, wooden floor slabs and reinforced concrete floor slabs. The construction of brick floor slabs is troublesome, the seismic resistance is poor, and the floor slab floor is too high, so it is rarely used now. Wooden floors have light weight, simple structure, good insulation performance, but poor durability and fire resistance, and are generally rarely used. Reinforced concrete floor slabs have the advantages of high strength, good rigidity, durability, fire resistance, waterproofing, and easy to industrial production. They are the type of floor slabs that are widely used now.
Reinforced concrete floor slabs can be divided into cast-in-place and prefabricated according to the construction method.
l Cast-in-place reinforced concrete floor slabs: The floor slabs have good integrity, durability, earthquake resistance, high stiffness, and can adapt to building planes of various shapes. It is convenient to leave holes in the equipment or set up embedded parts, but the formwork consumes a large amount and the construction cycle is long. According to different structures, it can be divided into the following three types of cast-in-place floor slabs:
Reinforced concrete cast-in-place floor slabs: When the distance between the load-bearing walls is not large, such as in the kitchen and toilet rooms of a residential house, the reinforced concrete floor slabs can be placed directly on the wall without beams and columns. The span of the board is generally 2-3 meters and the thickness of the board is about 70-80mm.
Reinforced concrete rib floor slab: also known as beam-slab floor slab, it is the most common form of cast-in-place floor slabs. It consists of the main board, secondary beam and main beam. The main beam can be supported by columns and walls. All plates, ribs, main beams and columns are cast in place after supporting the mold. Its general span is 1.7-2.5m and its thickness is 60-80mm.
Beamless floor slab: It is an equal-thick flat slab that is directly supported on the column with column caps, without the main beam and secondary beam. Its structure is conducive to lighting and ventilation, facilitates installation of pipes and arrangement of wires, and can reduce the height of the building under the same clearance conditions. Its disadvantage is that its stiffness is low, which is not conducive to withstanding large concentrated loads.
l Prefabricated reinforced concrete floor slabs: This type of floor slab is used to divide the floor slabs into several components of beams and slabs, and prefabricated in a prefabricated factory or construction site, and then installed. Its advantage is that it can save templates, improve labor conditions during production, and speed up construction progress; but its integrity is poor and requires certain lifting and installation equipment. With the improvement of construction industrialization, especially the large number of prestressed concrete processes are adopted, and its applications will become more and more widespread. According to its structure, it can be divided into the following types:
Solid flat plate: Solid flat plates are simple to make and save templates, suitable for parts with smaller spans, such as corridor plates, platform plates, etc.
groove-shaped plate: It is a beam-slab-bound component, composed of a panel and a longitudinal rib. The load acting on the groove-shaped plate is transmitted from the panel to the longitudinal ribs, and then from the longitudinal ribs to the walls or beams at both ends of the plate. In order to increase the stiffness of the groove-shaped plate, a transverse rib needs to be added between the two longitudinal ribs and closed with end ribs at both ends of the plate.
Hollow panel: Its upper and lower surfaces are flat, with good sound insulation and heat insulation effects, and is widely used in the building and roof of civil buildings. According to the shape of the hole, there are square holes, elliptical holes and round holes.
Window and Door
(1) Function and Type of Window
l Window Function: Mainly for lighting and ventilation, and can be used for enclosure and viewing, which also has a certain impact on the appearance of the building. The lighting effect of
windows mainly depends on the area of the window. The ratio of the window opening area to the floor area of the room is called the window-to-ground ratio. The greater this ratio, the better the lighting performance. Generally, the window-to-ground ratio of living rooms is about 1/7.
As part of the enclosure structure, the windows should have appropriate insulation and make double-layer windows in cold areas to facilitate cold protection in winter.
l Window type: There are many types of windows, and according to the materials used, they can be divided into: wooden windows, steel windows, aluminum alloy windows, fiberglass windows, etc. Among them, wooden windows and steel windows are the most widely used.
is divided into side windows and sunroof according to the position of the window. Side windows are windows installed on walls, and windows opened on roofs are called skylights, which are mostly used in industrial buildings.
can be divided into single-layer windows and double-layer windows according to the number of windows.
According to the opening method of the window, it can be divided into: fixed windows, casement windows, hanging windows, vertical turntable windows, sliding windows, etc.
(2) Door
l Function and type of door:
Function: Doors are an indispensable part of buildings. It is mainly used for traffic and evacuation, and also plays a role in lighting and ventilation. The size, location, opening method and facade form of
doors should be comprehensively determined in consideration of the requirements of evacuation of people, safety and fire prevention, handling and installation of furniture and equipment, and architectural art. The width of
doors can be made into a variety of single fan, double fan and four fan according to the requirements of use. When the width is within 1M, it is a single door, when the width is 1.2-1.8M, it is a double door, and when the width is greater than 2.4M, it is a four door.
Type: There are many types of doors, divided into materials according to them, including wooden doors, steel doors, reinforced concrete doors, aluminum alloy doors, plastic doors, etc. Various wooden doors are still widely used, and steel doors are widely used in industrial buildings.
can be divided into: ordinary doors, screen doors, louver doors, and special purpose insulation doors, soundproof doors, fireproof doors, anti-theft doors, explosion-proof doors, anti-ray doors, etc.
is divided into: swing door, spring door, folding door, sliding door, rotating door, ring curtain door, etc. according to the opening method.
Swing door: It is divided into single door and double door, and it is also divided into internal and external doors. It is equipped with ordinary hinges on the side of the door leaf and connected to the door frame, which is convenient and flexible to open. It is the most widely used in industrial and civil buildings.
Spring door: It is a type of swing door. The feature is that spring hinges are used instead of ordinary hinges, including one-way opening and two-way opening. There are several types of hinges, such as single-tube, double-tube and floor spring. Single-tube spring hinge is suitable for doors that open inward or outward; double-tube style is suitable for doors that can be opened inward or outward.
sliding door: The door is opened by sliding left and right. The door can be suspended outside the wall or hidden inside the wall. It can be divided into two types: up-hanging and down-sliding. This door does not occupy space when opening, and it is subject to reasonable force, but the structure is relatively complex. It is often used in garages, workshop doors and closet doors in industrial buildings.
Turntable door: It consists of two fixed curved door sleeves, equipped with three or four doors rotating around the vertical axis. Turntables have a certain effect on isolating indoor and outdoor air convection and are often used in cold areas and external doors with air conditioning. However, the structure is complex and the cost is high, so it is not suitable for large quantities of use.
Roller shutter door: consists of a curtain plate, guide rail and transmission device. The curtain plate is made of bar-shaped page plates rolled with aluminum alloy. When opened, the page plate is rolled up by rotating the rotating shaft on the upper part of the door opening and rolled the curtain plate onto the cylinder. The roller shutter door is beautiful, firm and convenient to open and switch, and is suitable for shops, garages, etc.
l Door Structure
Shoulder wooden door is the most widely used form in civil buildings. It is composed of door frames, door leafs, brighteners and hardware parts.
Common door leaves are as follows:
Paneled door leaves: is the most commonly used door leaves form, and can be used for both inner and outer doors.It consists of a frame and upper, middle and lower heads, and glass is inlaid in the frame, and the lower part is inlaid in the door core panel, which is called a glass paneled door. The door core panels can be made of wood, plywood, fiberboard and other boards. Keep a 5mm gap between the door leaf and the ground.
Plywood door leaf: It is made of smaller square wood to form a skeleton, with trim panels on both sides and trim around it with small wooden strips. The plywood door leaf has a simple structure, a flat surface, and a light switch. It can utilize small and short materials to save wood, but it is not resistant to moisture and sunlight. Therefore, bathrooms, toilets, kitchens and other rooms should not be used, and are mostly used for inner doors.
Isolated door leaf: The method is similar to that of paneled door leaf. First make a wooden frame. The door core board is made of many wooden strips. The narrow plate is made into a mouth, so that each narrow plate can expand and contract freely to adapt to changes in the outdoor climate. Panel doors are mostly used in the doors of industrial factories.
6, Stairs
(1) Types of stairs: Stairs are facilities for transportation connection between various floors of houses, and are generally set up near the entrances and exits of buildings. There are also some stairs set outdoors. The advantage of outdoor stairs is that they do not occupy indoor use area, but are prone to snow and freezing in cold areas, so they should not be used.
Stairs can be divided into indoor stairs and outdoor stairs according to their location.
is divided into: main stairs and auxiliary stairs indoors, and safety stairs outdoors and fire stairs.
According to the materials used, wood stairs, reinforced concrete stairs and steel stairs.
According to the arrangement of stairs, they can be divided into: single-run stairs, double-run stairs, three-run stairs and double-divided and double-combined stairs.
l Single-run staircase: When the floor height is low, single-run staircase is often used, starting from downstairs and reaching the upper floors directly from the top. It only has one ladder section and no rest platform is installed in the middle, so it should not step too much and is not suitable for houses with larger floor heights.
l Double running staircase: It is the most widely used form. Between the two floors, there are two parallel and opposite ladder sections and an intermediate resting platform. The two ladder sections are often made into equal length, saving area.
l Three-run staircase: Between two floors, it consists of three elevator sections and two rest platforms. It is often used in buildings with larger floor heights, and an elevator shaft can be set up in the center.
l Double-divided, double-combined staircase: The double-divided staircase is from a wider staircase section to a rest platform, and then divided into two narrower staircase sections to the floor. In contrast, the double-combination type is first raised from two narrower ladder sections to the rest platform, and then combined into a wider ladder section to the floor.
(2) Composition of stairs: The stairs are composed of stair sections, resting platforms, railings and handrails.
l Stair section: is an inclined component connecting two platforms at different elevation levels, consisting of a continuous set of steps. Its width should be determined based on the size of the flow of people, the handling of furniture and equipment, and the principles of safe evacuation. The maximum slope should not exceed 38 degrees, and it is more appropriate to be 26-33 degrees.
l Rest platform: also known as the intermediate platform, it is a platform between two floors. When the stair step exceeds 18 steps, a rest platform should be set up in the middle to play a role in buffering rest. The rest platform consists of a beam and a plate. The depth of the platform should be such that the net width after installing the radiator is not less than the width of the stairs section, so as to facilitate people's circulation and handling of furniture.
l Railings, railings and handrails: Railings and railings are barrier facilities arranged on the stair section and the edges of the platform with a certain degree of stiffness and safety. Usually one side of the stair section is against the wall and the other side is facing the air. Place a handrail on the railing, and the height of the handrail should be about 900mm higher than the step.
(3) Structure of stairs
Reinforced concrete stairs are currently the most widely used stairs. They have high strength, durability and fire resistance. According to the construction method, it can be divided into cast-in-place and prefabricated types.
Cat-in-place reinforced concrete staircase casts the stair section, platform and platform beam into a whole on site. It has good integrity and strong seismic resistance. According to the structure, it is divided into two types: plate staircase and beam staircase.
l Plate staircase: It is an obliquely arranged plate, with both ends supported on platform beams, and the platform beams supported on brick walls.
l Beam-type staircase: refers to the presence of inclined beams on both sides of the stair section, and the inclined beams are placed on the platform beams. The load is transferred from the stepping plate to the inclined beam, and then from the inclined beam to the platform beam
The use of prefabricated reinforced concrete stairs is conducive to improving the degree of construction industrialization, improving construction conditions, and speeding up construction progress. According to the form of prefabricated components, it can be divided into small component prefabricated and large component prefabricated.
l Small component prefabricated staircase: This kind of staircase is prefabricated, inclined beams, platform beams and platform plates separately, and then assembled. This type of stepping board is supported by brick walls without inclined beams. It is installed as bricks are laid, and no lifting equipment is used.
l Large component prefabricated staircase: This staircase consists of prefabricated stair sections, platform beams and platform panels. The inclined beam and stepping plate can form a whole, and the platform plate and platform beam can also form a whole plate, which can be lifted on the construction site with lifting equipment.
7, roof
(1) Functions and requirements of roof: The roof is the cover of the uppermost layer of the house, composed of the roof and the supporting structure. The roof's enclosure is to prevent the invasion of rain, snow, wind and sand in nature and the influence of solar radiation. On the other hand, it also has to bear the load on the upper part of the roof, including wind and snow loads, the roof's own weight, and the weight of possible components and people, and pass it to the wall. Therefore, the requirements for the roof are to be strong and durable, self-important, and have waterproof, fireproof, thermal insulation and heat insulation properties. At the same time, it is required to have simple components, convenient construction, and be able to cooperate with the building as a whole, with a good appearance.
(2) Roof type: According to the roof form, it can be roughly divided into four categories: flat roof, slope roof, curved roof and multi-wave folding roof.
l Flat roof: The maximum slope of the roof shall not exceed 10%, and the commonly used slope of civil buildings is 1%-3%. Generally, cast-in-place and prefabricated reinforced concrete beams and slabs are used as load-bearing structures, and waterproofing and thermal insulation are used on the roof.
l Slope roof: The roof slope is relatively large, above 10%. There are many forms such as single slope, double slope, four slope and hip mountain. Single slopes are used for houses with small spans, and double slopes and four slopes are used for houses with larger spans. Roof structures are commonly used as load-bearing structures and tiles are used as roofs.
l Surface roof: The roof shape is various curved surfaces, such as spherical surfaces, hyperbolic parabolic surfaces, etc. The load-bearing structures include grid frames, reinforced concrete integral thin shells, suspension cable structures, etc.
l Multi-wave folding slab roof: It is a multi-wave roof made of reinforced concrete thin slabs. The thickness of the folding plate is about 60mm, the wavelength of the folding plate is 2-3M, the span is 9-15M, and the inclination angle of the folding plate is between 30-38 degrees. According to the cross-sectional shape of each wave, there are two types: triangle and trapezoid.
Section 3 Calculation of house area
1. Classification of house area
1. Practical area (net area): It is the net usable area of the building area after deducting the common area and the area occupied by wall columns, commonly known as the floor tile area.
2. Building area (interior area, axis area): includes the practical area available for house living, wall column area, stairway area, other common areas, etc.
3. Common area: refers to the shared area of the building's stairs, exterior walls, first-floor lobby and other supporting facilities in the community.
2. The scope of calculating the building area:
1. No matter what the height of a single-story building is, it is calculated based on the horizontal area of the outer wall above the building's feet. If there are partial floors in a single-story building, the building area should also be calculated. When the building area needs to be calculated separately for the high and low spans, the outer line of the column adjacent to the high and low spans is the dividing line.
2. Multi-story or high-rise buildings are calculated based on the total floor area of the layered building, and the building area of each floor is calculated based on the horizontal area of the outer wall above the building's feet.
3. If the exterior wall of a building is prefabricated hanging board, it shall be calculated based on the horizontal area between the main wall of the hanging board exterior wall.
4, basements, semi-basements, underground workshops, warehouses, shops, command centers, etc., and buildings with entrances and exits (bounded by settlement joints) in the exterior walls of ancillary buildings shall be calculated based on the horizontal area of the outer periphery of their upper exterior wall. When stepping on the stairs at the end of the civil defense passage, the horizontal area of the outer wall of the upper staircase is calculated according to the horizontal area of the outer wall of the upper staircase.
5. Use deep foundations to make the underground overhead layer. If there is an enclosed structure, the building area shall be calculated based on the horizontal area of the outer periphery of the enclosed structure.
6. Sloped buildings use stilt feet as overhead layers. If there is an enclosed structure, the building area shall be calculated based on the horizontal area of the outer periphery of the enclosed structure.
7. The building area of the foyer and hall in the building, regardless of its height, is calculated based on the first floor, and the building area of the foyer and the corridor part in the hall is calculated based on its horizontal projection.
8, elevator shafts, lifting wells, garbage passages, pipeline wells, wall-mounted chimneys, etc. are all calculated based on the building area of the building's natural floor.
9. If the technical layer height in the building exceeds 2.2 meters, the building area shall be calculated based on the horizontal area of the peripheral layer of the technical layer. Although the technical layer height does not exceed 2.2 meters, it is separated from it as an office, warehouse, etc., and the building area should be calculated based on the peripheral horizontal area of the separated part of the use.
10. With column rain cover, the building area is calculated based on the horizontal area of the column periphery; independent column rain cover, the building area is calculated based on half of the horizontal projection area of the top cover.
11, column carports, cargo sheds, platforms, etc., the building area is calculated based on the horizontal area of the column periphery; independent carports, cargo sheds, platforms, etc. with single columns are calculated based on half of the horizontal projection area of the top cover.
12. The door bucket and viewing room that highlight the wall are calculated based on the horizontal area of the outer periphery of the enclosure structure.
13. Enclosed balcony and gallery are calculated based on their horizontal projection area. The building area of the balcony is generally calculated based on its horizontal projection area. The concave balcony is calculated based on half of its balcony clearance area (including balcony railings).
14. The corridors, eaves and corridors outside the building with roof covers and columns, and the building area is calculated based on the horizontal area of the outer edge of the column; corridors and eaves and corridors without columns are calculated based on half of their projected area.
15. The overhead corridor with an enclosed structure between two buildings shall be calculated based on the projected area of the corridor; the overhead corridor without an enclosed structure shall be calculated based on half of its projected area.
16. If there are no stairs in a building and outdoor stairs are set up, the outdoor stairs shall be calculated based on the horizontal projection area of each floor; if there are stairs in the indoor and outdoor stairs are set up, the outdoor stairs shall be calculated based on half of the horizontal projection area of each floor.
17. Various deformation and settlement joints, seismic joints with a width of less than 30mm, are calculated in a layered manner. When the high and low span are connected, the building area is incorporated into the low span building area.
3. The scope of building area is not calculated
1. Components that highlight the wall, artistic decoration, and art decor lines that highlight the hanging boards, such as columns, stacks, legs, steps, column-free rain covers, etc.
2, outdoor ladders for maintenance and fire protection, and steel ladders with a width of less than 60cm.
3, the passage through the building, the first floor platform of the residence, and the equipment layer with a floor height of less than 2.2 meters.
4. Only door and window openings are reserved on the deep infrastructure floor, and no floor or decoration are required.
5, roof water tank room without enclosure, stage and backstage hanging curtains, overpass with scenery, and platform.
6, single-story rooms such as operating rooms, operating rooms, instrument rooms, etc. separated in single-story buildings.
7. The ends of underground civil defense, branch lines, civil defense passages, and civil defense passages are safe entrances and exits set up by vertical ladders.
8, seismic joints with a width of more than 30mm, wall-to-wall chimneys with expansion joints, structures such as independent chimneys, flues, water towers, water storage tanks, storage silos, etc.
9, operating platforms inside and outside the building, feeding and using the building's space to place boxes and tanks.
Section 4 Overview of Chinese and Western architectural styles
With the reform and opening up, various characteristic buildings have sprung up on the land of China like mushrooms after a rain. From the perspective of architectural style, there are novel and luxurious modern architectural styles, unique Chinese architectural styles and Western architectural styles.
1. Features of Chinese-style architecture:
1. Group distribution, clear primary and secondary, and full of rhythm. The horizontal composition is adopted on the central axis, and important buildings are arranged on the central axis, while the secondary buildings are symmetrically arranged on both sides of the central axis. The structure is based on "intermediate" units to form a single building, and then a single building forms a courtyard, and then a courtyard unit is combined into various forms.
2. Pay attention to color matching. Chinese architecture has strong regional characteristics, but no matter where it is, it pays great attention to color matching, such as the white walls and black tiles of the Jiangnan water town, and the natural environment with the beautiful mountains and rivers. The buildings in the north are colorful and have strong contrasts, such as the Forbidden City of Beijing with red walls and yellow tiles, the red courtyard walls, the golden roofs, and the blue sky as the background. The strong contrast leaves a deep impression on people.
3. Decoration is diverse: the windows of Chinese-style buildings are the focus of decoration. The shapes of windows include square, circle, oval, flower shape, fan shape, polygon shape, etc., and the plaids and types in the windows are so numerous that they cannot be counted. For example, in Xidi Village, Yi County, Anhui Province, which is known as the "Ancient House Museum", the eyes are all filled with leaked windows or flowered windows carved from blue-gray stones, which are colorful and decorated with buildings to a simple and elegant style.
4. Buildings have obvious grade regulations: generally, they can be distinguished from the roof style and eaves of the building.
Hide-style building: the highest level, only royal important buildings, palaces or halls are used. It has four slopes, one ridge and four ridges. The roof has a slight curve, corners and eaves upwards.
Hi-mounted building: adopts a combination of four-sided slopes and two-sided slopes, that is, the upper part of the roof on the east and west sides turns into a vertical triangle, and the lower part is still a slope.
pointed building: the plane is round or polygonal, with a conical roof on it. It is more common on the tops of altars, pavilions, pavilions and towers.
Hanging mountain-style building: the roof is double sloped, and both sides extend beyond the gables. There are one ridge and four ridges.
Hard mountain building: the lowest specification, the gables on both sides are flush with the roof or slightly higher than the roof. The ridge is the same as the hanging mountain style.
2. Characteristics of Western architectural style:
1. Romanesque architecture: Romanesque architecture emerged from the 9th to the 15th century AD and is one of the main architectural forms of Christian churches in Europe. Romanesque buildings have simple and clear lines, thick and solid shapes. Some of them have the most feudal castle characteristics and are the embodiment of the power of the church. For example, the old Xi Jinping church in Tianjin has a long cross-shaped plane, and three tall towers stand on the front and rear. The building is made of yellow and saffron bricks, with an emerald green round belly-shaped roof, and a semicircular arch window under the eaves, with distinct colors. The hall is a three-way corridor-style, with painted murals on the interior walls and gorgeously decorated.
2. Gothic architecture: Gothic architecture is also one of the main architectural styles in the medieval European era. Gothic architecture is exactly the opposite of Romanesque architecture, with steady shape and round lines. It wins with a dynamic style, and runs through the vertical lines that run through the whole body and pierces the sky. The sharp spire is its main feature and is a concentrated expression of extraordinary and fascinating religious emotions. For example, the Nangang Nikolai Church in Harbin City, Heilongjiang is a Gothic all-wood structure building. Its appearance is a complex combination of two cross-curves and light lines, with huge space inside, and a huge clang of the top. The light penetrates through the stained glass windows and turns into the brilliance of blood red, purple quartz and topaz, creating an upward, mysterious illusion of heaven, thus highlighting the supreme authority of God.
3. Architecture in the Revival: This type of architecture is a popular European architectural style from the 15th to the 17th centuries.Its shape excludes the Gothic architectural style that symbolizes the supremacy of theosophical power, and expresses its symmetry and harmony of the human body's beauty. For example, the Pudong Development Bank building standing on the Bund of Shanghai, with marble exterior walls, classical cylinders, semicircular arch domes, and a symmetrical architectural form centered on the arch dome, showing a solemn, luxurious and elegant aesthetic taste. There are works showing religious stories on the inner roof and echo wall of the building, which express the humanistic ideas advocated by the Renaissance.
4. Baroque architecture: Baroque architecture, focusing on the pursuit of the effect of producing complex changes in the combination of architectural spaces. For example, Shanghai Peace Hotel has a Baroque architectural style. It has a round roof and many pillars, which produce various changes in light and darkness under different lights. The color is also very bold, with red and white as the main tones. What is more noteworthy is that the windows are not only of many styles, but also present wavy curves, making the entire building full of vitality.
5. Western-style modern architecture: represented by new high-rise skyscrapers. These high-rise buildings are made of reinforced concrete, steel, glass, plastic, and prefabricated components. They adopt the internal space division method of the building that is unrelated to the basic structural system, emphasizing the texture and beauty of proportion of the material itself. For example, Shenzhen’s International Trade Building is 160 meters high and has 53 floors. The appearance lines are simple, bright, upright and smooth, symbolizing the pioneering spirit of this new type of city. The building has a sightseeing elevator, and you can enjoy the outdoor scenery even during the moments of taking the elevator.
6. Courtyard-style architecture: refers to the use of geometric figures to cleverly integrate ancient traditional architectural art with the latest modern technologies to build various self-organized and unique courtyard-style buildings. For example, Beijing Xiangshan Hotel is a representative of courtyard-style buildings. This 325-room hotel is built with 5 slanted rooftops of different styles, with the lowest floor high and the highest floor only 4 floors. The roof is made of Chinese hip-mounted roofs, suspended mountain roofs, hard mountain roofs, and windows on the walls are modeled after the flower windows and leaking windows in Jiangnan, China. The gray tiles and white walls are elegant and unique in colors, with many corridors, and an exquisite garden full of Jiangnan books. Its internal facilities are very modern, such as the fragrance hall, which uses a transparent glass roof, making full use of new technologies such as computers, air conditioners, and light sensing. When you walk into the hotel, Jiangnan is filled with beauty; when you step into the room, you can get the most modern enjoyment.
3. A combination of Chinese and Western
The building built by mixing Western architectural style and Chinese architectural style together, such as the Longbai Hotel located in the western district of Shanghai, is typical. Its appearance is composed of uneven geometric figures. Around the main building is a large green lawn with several white lounge chairs on it for travelers to rest. There is also a pool next to the main building, which is dynamic and full of vitality. On the north side of the building, there is a quiet path leading to the "small village". In the "small village", there are many small and unique Japanese-style country villas, full of oriental style.
Section 5 Architectural drawing recognition
Learn to identify and use architectural sections, floor plans, elevation plans, and water, electricity and heating drawings.
Chapter 3 Real estate transaction
Section 1 Real estate price
1. Characteristics of real estate prices:
Real estate prices have both commonalities and general prices. The common point is: A is both price, expressed in currency; B is both fluctuating and affected by factors such as supply and demand; C is priced according to quality, high-quality and high-quality and low-quality. The difference between real estate prices and general prices shows the characteristics of real estate prices.
The main characteristics of real estate prices are as follows:
1. The real estate price can be expressed as the price of the consideration, and it can also be expressed as the rent of the use and income consideration
The relationship between real estate price and rent, just like the relationship between principal and interest. If you require a price, as long as you can grasp the net income and capitalization rate, you can capitalize the net income according to the income method.On the contrary, if you ask for rent, you can obtain it as long as you can grasp the price and expected capitalization rate.
2. Real estate price is essentially the price of real estate equity
. Since the natural geographical location of real estate is immobile, what can be transferred is not the real estate itself, but the ownership, use rights or other interests related to the real estate, so the real estate price is essentially the price of these intangible equity. The physical status of a real estate is not always consistent with its equity status. Therefore, it is inevitable that there is a close relationship between real estate valuation and understanding and analysis of real estate rights and interests. Since each equity will affect the price, the valuation results will also be different when the equity transferred in the same real estate will be different.
3. Real estate prices are formed after long-term considerations.
A real estate usually forms a certain area with other surrounding real estate, but the area is not fixed, especially the socio-economic location is often changing. Therefore, the real estate price is to consider how the real estate was used in the past and what it can be used in the future. Only after summarizing these considerations can the real estate price (or the price at a certain time) be formed. When valuing, you should pay close attention to the fact that today's price is yesterday's development and tomorrow's reflection.
4. The real estate price is generally formed individually with the necessity of transactions, and individual factors between transaction subjects are likely to work
This is due to the natural characteristics of land such as immobility, quantitative fixity, and individuality, which makes real estate different from general items. General commodities can conduct sample trading and product name trading, and their prices can be formed in the trading market. Real estate cannot be moved to one place for comparison. To understand real estate, you must only go to the location to observe in person.
2. Types of real estate prices:
To evaluate real estate, you must understand the type of real estate prices and the exact meaning of each real estate price. Different real estate prices have different roles, and the principles, basis and factors considered are also different.
1, market price, theoretical price, appraisal price
A market price
The market price of real estate, referred to as the market price, is the actual transaction price of both parties to the real estate transaction. It is the fact that it has been done. This price usually fluctuates frequently with time, changes in supply and demand relationships, and the mentality, preferences and qualities of both parties to the transaction.
market price can be divided into fair market price and non-fair market price. Fair market price refers to the transaction price of both parties under normal circumstances, and is not affected by some adverse factors, such as not understanding the market conditions, monopoly, forced transactions, etc. This price is also economical and reasonable for both parties to the transaction. Otherwise, it is an unfair market price.
fair market price can also be said to be the price sold only at the price it requires, the buyer only purchases at the price it is willing to pay, the seller believes it is the highest price and the buyer believes it is the lowest price, and both parties believe that the transaction is beneficial to them and the price formed by the voluntary transaction.
The conditions for forming fair market price are summarized in the following seven
(a)Open market;
(b)The transaction object is marketable
(c)The transaction parties have sufficient information
(d)The transaction parties are not under any pressure
(e)Rational economic behavior
(f)Complete transactions in appropriate period
(g)Normal and reasonable payment methods
(e)Rational economic behavior
(f)Complete transactions in appropriate period
(g)Normal and reasonable payment methods
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B Theoretical Price of real estate is the price it should achieve if real estate is traded in a reasonable market. Theoretical price is not a fact, but it exists objectively.
C Evaluation Price
Real estate appraisal price, referred to as appraisal price, is an estimate, speculation or judgment made by the appraiser on the objective and reasonable price of real estate. Evaluating prices is not true either.
When evaluating market prices, the appraised price of real estate is closely related to the market prices.Due to the lack of a complete market for real estate, under the licensing system, there are special valuation agencies to provide services to both parties to the transaction. In this case, the appraisal price often becomes the market price. It is worth noting that due to the different experience, knowledge, hobbies, interests, etc. of the appraisers, the prices assessed by different appraisers may not be exactly the same for the same real estate. Therefore, in order to ensure that the price is objective and reasonable, it is necessary to establish and improve the valuation system, formulate valuation technical standards and professional ethics standards of valuation personnel. Generally speaking, the price assessed by experienced valuators is closer to the market price.
evaluation price can also be called differently according to the evaluation method used during the evaluation. For example, the price obtained by evaluating the market comparison method is called the quasi-price, the price obtained by evaluating the cost method is called the integrated price, and the price obtained by evaluating the profit method is called the profit price.
can be seen from the above that the objective and reasonable price needs to be evaluated, while the actual price may be the price with subjective factors of the valuation personnel. Both of these may be different from the transaction price that the valuation object actually trades in the market. But theoretically, a good assessed price = fair market price = theoretical price
2, land price, building price, real estate price
This is a set of prices divided according to the existence form of real estate. There are three types of real estate: land, buildings, and real estate. Real estate prices are usually divided into land prices, building prices, and real estate prices.
A Land price
Land price, referred to as land price. If it is a piece of vacant land without buildings, this price refers to the price of the land; if it is a piece of land with a building, this price refers to the price of the pure land part of the real estate.
The same piece of land will have different "raw and mature" considerations (or assumptions) when valuing, and there will be different prices. There are mainly six types of "raw and mature" of land: (a) Non-requisition compensation for agricultural land. Those who purchase this land must provide expropriation compensation and pay land expropriation compensation; (b) Land that has been expropriated but has not made three-way and one-level land. The so-called "three connections and one level" usually refers to road connection, water connection, electricity connection and site leveling; (c) Land that has been made in three connections and one level (e) Land that has been made in three connections and one level, such as land that has been made in seven connections and one level. "Seven-way" refers to facilities and conditions such as roads, water supply, drainage, electricity, communications, gas, heat, etc., and "one level" refers to the leveling of land; (d) land with buildings to be demolished in the existing urban area. Those who purchase this land must undergo demolition and resettlement, and pay demolition compensation and resettlement fees (f) urban vacant land that has been demolition and resettlement.
B Building price
Building price refers to the price of the building part and does not include the price of the land it occupies. What people usually call house prices, such as the price of buying a commercial house and the price of buying a villa, usually includes the price of the land occupied by the building, which means different from the price of the building here.
C Real estate price
Real estate price, also known as the mixed price of real estate, refers to the price of the building and the land it occupies, which is often the same as what people usually call the house price above.
For the same real estate:
Real estate price = land price + building price
Land price = real estate price - building price
Building price = real estate price - land price
3, total price, unit price, floor land price
This is a set of prices divided according to the units of the real estate price.
A Total price
Total price of real estate, referred to as the total price, refers to the overall price of a real estate. Depending on the situation, the total price of real estate is also not allowed. It may be the price of a piece of land with an area of 500m2, the price of a high-end apartment with an area of 200m2, or the price of a piece of land with a area of 1km2, or the price of all real estate in a region, or the price of all real estate in a country. The total price of real estate generally does not indicate the level of real estate prices.
B unit price
unit price of real estate, referred to as unit price. For the unit price of land, it refers to the land price per unit land area; for the unit price of a building, it refers to the building price per unit building area; for the unit price of a real estate, it refers to the land price per unit building area. The unit price of real estate can reflect the level of real estate price.
Recognize the unit price and recognize the currency unit, area unit and area meaning. Taking land as an example, the relationship between the unit price of land and the total land price is:
Land unit price = total land price ÷ total land area
Due to different units of measurement of land area in different countries or regions, the expression methods of land price per unit area are different. For example, in mainland my country, land price per square meter is usually used, land price per square foot is used, land price per square foot (10.764 square feet is used in 1 square meter), and land price per square foot is used in Taiwan (about 0.303 square meters and 1 square meter). Sometimes the land area unit also uses acres, hectares, etc. For residential buildings, there are also prices for unit building area, use area or living area.
C Floor land price
Floor land price, also known as the land price per unit of building area, is the average land price per unit of building area. The relationship between floor land price and total land price is:
Floor land price = total land price ÷ total construction area
From this formula, we can find the relationship between floor land price, land unit price, and floor area ratio, that is:
Floor land price = unit price of land ÷ floor area ratio
It is very important to clarify the role of floor land price. In real life, floor land prices often show the level of land prices better than the unit price of land.
4, ownership price, use price, other rights price
This is a set of prices divided according to the property rights of the real estate traded. For the same real estate, the transaction may be ownership, use rights, or other rights, such as land rights, perpetual tenancy rights, easement rights, ritual rights, logging rights, quarrying rights, and farming rights. China currently mainly has ownership and use rights.
A ownership price
The ownership price of real estate refers to the price of the transaction real estate ownership. The price of real estate ownership can also be further subdivided based on whether the ownership is completely re-divided. For example, according to the "rights bundle" theory, ownership is the sum of possession, management, enjoyment, exclusivity, and disposal rights (including sale, rental, mortgage, gift, inheritance), but if other rights are set on ownership, ownership becomes incomplete and its price is therefore reduced.
B usage rights price
Real estate usage rights price refers to the price of trading real estate usage rights. Taking land as an example, the current price of land sold for paid in China is the price of land use rights. Article 7 of the Urban Real Estate Administration Law of the People's Republic of China stipulates: "The transfer of land use rights refers to the act of the state transferring state-owned land use rights to land users within a certain period of time, and the land user pays the land use rights transfer fee to the state." Accordingly, the legal name of the price of the land use rights obtained from the state is the transfer fee. But there are various evolutions in reality, mostly called land prices and contents in different places are also different. Land use rights can be divided into various usage rights prices based on the length of the use rights, such as the use rights prices of 30 years, 50 years, and 70 years.
C other rights prices
other rights prices are not specifically listed, and generally refer to the right price other than the above ownership price and use right price, such as the price of the above-mentioned rights, the price of perpetual tenancy rights, etc.
5, trading price, rental price, mortgage price, tax price, expropriation price
A trading price
Buying and selling price, is the amount of money paid or collected by trading, physical or other valuable items, referred to as the bid or sale price or bid price and sale price.
B rental price
Lease price is often called rent, which is called land rent in land occasions, and commonly known as rent in mixed land occasions.Currently, China's rent includes market rent (or agreement rent), commodity rent, cost rent, quasi-cost rent and welfare rent.
C mortgage price
mortgage price is the real estate price evaluated for mortgage loans. As the security of mortgage repayment is to be considered, the assessment of mortgage prices should be based on: (a) the amount that can be achieved when the maturity cannot be repaid to the real estate when it needs to be sold for compulsory. Because it is a mandatory sale, the property cannot be evaluated in an ideal market context. Therefore, it is generally lower than the market price. There is a saying that "it is better to estimate the small amount than to estimate the large amount, which is conservative." Theoretically, the mortgage price assessment is an assessment of expected prices (b) to avoid the lender taking any unnecessary risks, so the mortgage price should be the value after deducting the forced disposal taxes, that is,
Mortgage price = expected value - disposal taxes
In this way, even if the borrower is unable to repay the loan, the lender's funds are still guaranteed, because the lender can recover the loaned funds from the mortgaged real estate according to the agreement.
D tax price
Tax price refers to the price calculated by the appraiser as the basis for real estate taxation by the government for taxation. The specific taxation depends on the taxation policy.
E expropriation price
expropriation price is the price assessed for the government's expropriation of real estate compensation.
6, auction price, bidding price, agreement price
This is a set of price categories related to the methods used in real estate transactions (or transfers).
A auction price
The auction price of real estate refers to the transaction price of real estate transaction (or sale) through auction.
B tender price
real estate tender price refers to the transaction price of real estate transaction (or sale) through bidding.
C protocol price
real estate auction price refers to the transaction price of real estate transaction (or sale) through agreement.
D The relationship between the above three prices
From the perspective of the current transfer of state-owned land use rights in urban areas in China, auction and transfer of land use rights refers to the bidding of a unified numbered sign under the auspices of the land auction host at a designated time and public occasions, and the land is finally obtained by the person with the highest bid; bidding and transfer of land use rights refers to the bidding of a certain piece of land in the form of a written bid by a unit or individual that meets the designated period. Generally, not only the bid price is considered, but other conditions are also considered, such as planning and construction plans and corporate credit, but the bidding content is also limited to the bidding price; the land use rights agreed to transfer is generally negotiated by the government and specific land users (such as high-tech projects that the government needs to support, non-commercial housing). The agreement transfer is a way for government departments to provide land to those high-tech industries or education, health, charity, and religions that they need to support, and generally reduces the land price; since the bidding method not only considers quotations, but usually requires development plans, the selected land users may not necessarily be the highest bidder, so it has the effect of suppressing land prices; but simply bidding through quotations can raise land prices; in auction occasions, since whoever obtains the land depends entirely on the quotation price, the land price can be raised the most. Therefore, under normal circumstances, the land price sold by agreement is the lowest, followed by bidding and auction.
7, benchmark land price, calibrated land price, house reset price
These are the three prices mentioned in the "Urban Real Estate Management Law of the People's Republic of China". Article 32 of the Law stipulates: "The benchmark land price, calibrated land price and the reset price of various types of houses shall be determined and announced regularly."
A benchmark land price
City benchmark land price is the land price segment within a certain area of a certain city, and the land price segment is divided according to the principles of similar uses, connected areas and similar land prices, and then the average price of the land price segments measured at a certain point in time.
B calibration land price
calibration land price refers to the price of a land price level of a land that can represent different locations and uses under certain periods and conditions.
C house reset price
house reset price, simply put, assume that when the house is rebuilt at the valuation point, the necessary construction costs plus the average profit. Specifically, it refers to the expenses plus average profit required to rebuild a new house of similar structures, styles, quality and functions according to the normal construction technology, process level, building materials prices, labor and machinery costs at the time of valuation.
8, base price, expected price, subsidy price
A base price
Bottom price refers to the lowest price determined by the government, enterprise or private sale (especially auction) real estate, also known as the starting price (referred to as the starting price). If it is lower than this price, it can not be sold.
B Expected Price
Expected Price generally refers to the satisfactory price that the government, enterprise or privately hopes to sell when selling real estate. If the price rises by 15% based on the base price, it can be regarded as the expected price.
C Land price
Land price refers to a land price that needs to be handed over to the government when changing the purpose specified by the government when the original land use right was transferred, or increasing the floor area ratio, or transferring, renting, or mortgageing the land use right to be transferred, or renewing the land use right transferred, etc.
For changing the purpose, the amount of land supplementary land price is usually equal to the difference between the land price after changing the purpose and before changing the purpose, that is:
Land supplementary land price = land price after changing the purpose - land price before changing the purpose
For increasing the area ratio, the amount of land supplementary land price can be calculated by the following formula:
Land supplementary land price = [(the increased floor area ratio - the original floor area ratio) ÷ original floor area ratio] × Land price under the original floor area ratio
9, other prices
In addition to the above eight aspects, there are some other real estate price names, such as current housing prices, futures prices, maximum price limits, and minimum price limits. Among the real estate regulations formulated by relevant government departments, there are also real estate planned prices, guided prices, average prices, cost prices, commodity prices, etc.
Among them, the spot price refers to the price of money and goods paying off in sight, and the futures price refers to the pre-sale price of real estate. The relationship between the two is:
Futures price = spot price - corresponding investment interest ± sales risk expected profit and loss value
Section 2 Factors influencing real estate prices
Real estate price level is the result of the interaction of many factors affecting real estate prices, or in other words, it is formed by the interaction and influence of these factors.
To grasp the factors that affect real estate prices, we should first understand the following four points in concept:
l The influence directions of various factors that affect real estate prices on real estate prices are different: some factors reduce the price of real estate, while others increase the price of real estate
l The impact degree of various factors that affect real estate prices on real estate prices is also different: some factors have a greater impact on real estate prices (that is, the rise and fall of real estate prices caused by changes in this factor), and some factors have a less impact. However, with different periods, different regions, or different types of real estate, those factors with greater influence may become smaller factors, or even no influence; on the contrary, those factors with less influence may become the main influencing factors.
l The impact relationship between various factors affecting real estate prices and real estate prices is different: some factors have a constant impact on real estate prices, that is, the price of real estate increases (or decreases) with the change of such factors; some factors increase (or decreases) with the change of such factors in a certain situation, but in another situation, the price of real estate decreases (or increases) with the change of such factors; some factors will increase the price of real estate from a certain perspective, but from another perspective, the price of real estate will decrease. The final impact of their real estate prices is reasonably determined by these two aspects.
l The impact of certain factors on real estate prices can be completely measured by digital models, but the impact of more factors on real estate prices is invisible. Although it can be felt, it is difficult to express it in mathematical formulas. As for how much impact they have on real estate prices, they mainly rely on the rich experience accumulated by the appraisers for a long time to make judgments. Therefore, real estate valuation must be solved by using scientific valuation methods, but it cannot be simply solved by applying certain calculation formulas. The calculation needs to be based on a comprehensive analysis of the relevant factors of real estate prices, and the calculation results often need to be further revised through a comprehensive analysis of the factors affecting real estate prices.
There are many and complex factors that affect real estate prices, and usually require inductive classification. For the convenience of discussion and analysis, the factors that affect real estate prices are now divided into the following 10 categories: supply and demand conditions, their own conditions, environmental factors, population factors, economic factors, social factors, administrative factors, psychological factors, international factors, and other factors. Various influencing factors also include several specific influencing factors. The following is an analysis of various factors that affect real estate prices. It is worth mentioning here that many influencing factors are not completely independent, but when analyzing the impact of a certain factor on real estate prices, other factors are assumed to remain unchanged, although it is impossible to remain unchanged in real life.
1. Supply and demand situation
Supply and demand are the two ultimate factors that form price. Everything else affects prices either by affecting supply or by affecting demand. The price of real estate is also determined by supply and demand, which is positively correlated with demand and negatively correlated with supply. If the supply is stable and demand increases, the price will rise; if the demand decreases, the price will fall. When demand is stable and supply increases, prices fall; when supply decreases, prices rise. The supply and demand situation of real estate can be divided into the following four types:
A total supply and demand situation of the total real estate in the country
B total supply and demand situation of the total real estate in this category
C total supply and demand situation of the total supply and demand situation of the total real estate in this category
D total supply and demand situation of the total supply and demand situation of the real estate in this category
D total supply and demand situation of the real estate in this category
Due to the immobility of real estate and the difficulty of changing the use function, the price level of a certain real estate is mainly the supply and demand situation of the real estate in this category in this category in this area. As for whether the supply and demand status of other types of real estate has an impact on the price level of the real estate and its degree of impact, it depends on the impact of these supply and demand status.
2. The quality of the real estate itself is directly related to its price. The so-called self-condition refers to factors that reflect the natural physical state of real estate itself. These factors are as follows:
1, location
Various economic and living activities have requirements for real estate location. The advantages and disadvantages of real estate locations directly affect the economic benefits, degree of life satisfaction or social impact of its owner or user. Therefore, the prices of real estate are different in different locations. This is true whether it is located in a city or countryside, central commercial or residential area, street corner or inner-land, sunny or sunny. Especially urban land, its price is almost dependent on the advantages and disadvantages of location.
Real estate prices are positively correlated with the advantages and disadvantages of location. The location of commercial real estate mainly depends on the prosperity and street facing status.The location of a residential real estate mainly depends on the surrounding environment, tranquility, convenience of transportation, and distance from the city center. The requirements for villas are close to nature, with excellent environmental quality, and living within them can ensure a certain degree of privacy in life. "A thousand gold is a step away" is always a truth for business, but it is a misunderstanding for building villas. The location of industrial real estate usually depends on the nature of its industry. Generally speaking, if its position is conducive to the transportation of raw materials and products, facilitates waste treatment and power acquisition, its price will tend to rise.
The location of real estate is a geometric concept on the surface, but in fact it is not a simple geometric concept, but the sum of natural and human factors associated with a specific location. Therefore, the location of real estate is different from the natural geographical location and the socio-economic location. Although the natural geographical location of real estate remains fixed, its socio-economic location will change. This change may be caused by the formulation or modification of urban planning, transportation construction or diversion, or other construction. However, when the position of real estate becomes better from inferiority, the price will rise back; on the contrary, the price will fall.
2, geological
Different types of buildings have different requirements for foundation bearing capacity, and different lands have different bearing capacity. Address conditions determine the carrying capacity of the land. The geology is solid and the bearing capacity is large, which is conducive to building use. In urban land, especially when modern urban construction is developing towards higher hierarchy, geological conditions have a great impact on land prices. Land prices are positively correlated with geological conditions; if geological conditions are good, land prices will be higher; conversely, if the address conditions are poor, land prices will be lower.
3, Terrain terrain
Terrain refers to the undulating ground conditions in the same piece of land. Terrain refers to the height relationship between the land and the adjacent land, especially the height relationship with the adjacent road, such as higher or lower than the road surface. Generally speaking, if the land is flat, the land price is higher; if the land is uneven, the land price is lower; if other conditions are the same, the price of real estate with high terrain is higher than the price of real estate with low terrain.
4, land area
3, two pieces of land at the same location have different sizes, and the prices will vary. Generally speaking, land that is too small and not conducive to economic use is relatively low. The relationship between land price and land area is variable. Generally speaking, the sensitivity to area size in bustling urban areas is higher, while in suburban or rural areas is correspondingly lower. The appropriateness of land area varies depending on different regions and consumption habits. For example, if a local market generally accepts high-rise buildings, the utilization value of a larger area of land in that place is higher than the utilization value of a smaller area of land, so the price of a larger area of land will be much higher than the price of a smaller area of land. On the contrary, if the local market can only accept small building types, the price of larger areas of land will not be very different from that of smaller areas of land.
5, land shape
Whether the land shape is regular will also have a certain impact on land prices. The land shapes include squares, rectangles, triangles, diamonds, trapezoids, etc. Land with irregular shapes is generally cheaper because it cannot be used effectively. After the land is adjusted or re-drawn, its utilization value increases and land prices immediately rise. Land prices are positively correlated with land shape: if the land shape is regular, the land price will be higher; if the land shape is irregular, the land price will be lower.
6, Rizhao
Sunshine includes both sunshine in a natural state and sunshine under human factors. The relationship between real estate prices and Rizhao has the following characteristics: on the one hand, it is positively correlated with Rizhao; on the other hand, it is negatively correlated with Rizhao. Generally speaking, the price of real estate that is blocked by huge buildings or other things around it (especially residences) must be lower than the price of equivalent real estate without any concealment. The impact of Rizhao on real estate prices can also be seen in the impact of the direction of the house on its price.
7, ventilation, wind direction, wind power
Generally speaking, the greater the wind power or the wind disaster often occurs, the lower the real estate price. The relationship between real estate prices and wind direction is more obvious in cities. Real estate prices are generally higher in upper wind areas, and real estate prices are generally lower in lower wind areas.
8, temperature, humidity, precipitation
, these three are extremely oversupply or extremely poor, which are not conducive to production and life, and therefore will reduce real estate prices. Combining precipitation with the terrain, its impact on real estate prices is more obvious. Although the terrain is low, if the precipitation is not large, it will not easily accumulate water, so the terrain has little impact on real estate prices, but it is exceptional in areas with high groundwater levels. On the contrary, if the precipitation is large, the terrain has a great influence on real estate prices.
9. Natural periodic disasters
In areas with natural periodic disasters, the land use value must be very low and cannot even be used. However, once such land is built with reliable flood control projects and is no longer affected by cyclical disasters, its prices will gradually rise. Even because it is close to rivers, rivers, lakes and seas, special conditions can be obtained, such as scenery and water transportation, so the price of this type of land is higher than that of other lands.
10, building appearance
3 The appearance of the building includes architectural style, style and color, which has a great impact on real estate prices. If a building has a novel and beautiful appearance and can give people a comfortable feeling, the price will be higher; on the contrary, monotonous and dull, it is difficult to arouse people's strong desire to enjoy, and even depressing and disgusting, the price will be lower.
11, building orientation, building structure, internal layout, equipment configuration status, construction quality, etc.
3. Environmental factors
Environmental factors that affect real estate prices refer to those physical factors around real estate that have an impact on real estate prices. Factors in this regard include:
1, sonic environment
Where there is a lot of noise, real estate prices will inevitably be low. In low noise and quiet places, real estate prices are usually higher.
2, atmospheric environment
Whether the area where real estate is located has bad smells, harmful substances and dust, etc., has a great impact on real estate prices. Real estate prices are lower in places close to chemical factories, slaughterhouses, wineries, toilets, etc.
3, Hydrological environment
How pollution levels in groundwater, ditches, rivers, lakes, oceans, etc., also have a great impact on the prices of real estate nearby
4, Visual environment
Are the things placed around real estate chaotic, are the buildings coordinated, and whether the landscape formed by parks, greening, etc. are pleasing to the eyes. These have an impact on real estate prices
5, Sanitary environment
How clean and hygienic conditions are, and also on real estate prices
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