These days, Italian luxury brand DG has aroused a strong boycott among the Chinese people due to an advertisement and a designer's openly insulting China. Just yesterday, the two founders of DG sent out official apology videos to apologize to all Chinese people. The origin of this series of events is related to the chopsticks we use most frequently in our lives. DG was suspected of discrimination against the representative thing of "Chopsticks", a representative of Chinese culture, and called it "two small ones" in a recent commercial. stick".
is very different from DG. Henry Pozorsky, professor of civil engineering and history at Duke University in the United States (Henry) Petroski) saw wisdom and progress from the knives, forks, chopsticks and other tools we use in daily life -
Even if we eat by hand, we should not be discriminated against
Knife, forks were once despised and rejected
Chopsticks carry The wisdom and thoughts of Chinese people
Any kind of tableware and its evolution
are the products of different cultures, regardless of the difference
0 We use tableware every day as natural as using our hands; no matter whether it is a knife, fork, or spoon, it is like a finger. Being obedient seems to realize that you are using tableware only when you touch your elbows on the dining table, people who are different from those who use their left and right hands. How were these convenient tableware invented and why did we feel that it was natural to use? Is it the inspiration of the ancestors who shouted "Ah! I understand!" Or is it slowly evolved with human beings? Why do Western tableware make Oriental people feel novel, while Westerners are always clumsy when using chopsticks? Are our tableware perfect? Still need improvement?
Of course our ancestors had to eat, but what method did they use? Undoubtedly, they must be like beasts at the beginning, so we infer that they used their teeth and nails to tear fruits and vegetables, but their strength was limited and they could not tear all the food into small pieces.
By knife instead of hand
Inspiration for inventing the knife is believed to be fragments of flint and obsidian. Its hard texture and sharp edges can be scraped, pricked, and cut vegetables and fish. As for how people at that time thought of using flint, there are still many different opinions. But in fact, it is not difficult to imagine that our ancestors would notice this sharp object. For example, someone may be cut by flint when walking barefoot, so they thought of using this flint. Later, the behavior of learning to find flint was much less meaningful in invention. When the number of flints decreased, our ancestors turned to other gravels, which might have been inspired by the natural phenomenon of seeing the falling rock fragments.
Therefore, prehistoric humans became more and more good at finding, making and using flint knives, and naturally began to look for other dexterous tools. With the invention of fire, they began to cook food, but the cut slices of meat are not convenient to heat directly on the fire, let alone cooking. So they began to use branches to skewer meat slices, just like the kids roasted marshmallows today. Method; sharp branches are easy to obtain from the bushes, which can prevent the fingers from being burned by fire when grilling food; large pieces of meat are skewed together with larger branches, and then cut into pieces with flint and surrounded by People next to the fire use sharp branches or pick on the meat slices directly with their hands.
The knife used today is inspired by the use of flint and branches. In ancient times, forks were made of copper or iron, while fork handles were made of wood, shells or animal horns. The use of knives is very common and can be used as a tableware, weapon or general tool. In the Saxon era, knife was a tool carried by ordinary people, but ordinary people still fed freely with bare hands, but more educated people began to develop the habit of using knife. In formal occasions, the food is usually cut and placed on the bread, then fed with a knife and put it into your mouth to keep your hands clean.
It seems more dangerous to eat with two knives, but in the Middle Ages, this was the most particular table etiquette. Those who are used to use the right hand should hold a knife in the left hand to fix the food, hold a knife in the right hand to cut the food, and then use the blade to send the food into their mouth. Using double knife is a great improvement, and people who use it well are as natural as today’s use of knife and fork.
fixed with one knife and cut with one knife, so that you can avoid touching the food with your hands.But sharp knives are usually difficult to hold, and we know when we use two knives to cut diced steaks; it takes effort to fix the steaks, and their hands are prone to soreness, and when cutting the steaks, the steaks often roll. Therefore, it is still a common phenomenon to cut food by hand.
Forks are released
The various inconveniences of using a knife have prompted the forks to be released. There were fork-like utensils in ancient Greece and Roman times, but it was not recorded in the literature that it had been applied to the dining table. Ancient Greek chefs had a kitchen utensil similar to a fork, which took the meat out of the boiling pot to avoid burning hands. The trident and pitchfork of the Sea God are also similar instruments.
The earliest fork had only two pointed teeth, which were mainly placed in the kitchen to fix the food when cutting staple food. Its function was the same as the previous knife, but it prevented the meat from curling and rolling. Humans in prehistoric times should have thought of inventing forks because they knew how to use straight branches to grill meat, and fork-shaped branches were everywhere, but it took a long time before the fork became a tableware. It was not until 1100 that the nobles began to use forks in the Middle Ages in the 7th century, and it was introduced to Italy. It was not until the 14th century that the function of forks as tableware was more obvious. The list of court items of King Charles V of France (from 1364 to 1380 during his reign) included a golden fork and silver fork, and stated that "use when eating mulberries or food that is prone to dirty hands." The fork was used on the ordinary dining table in 1533 when Catherine, the Italian Médicis family, married Henry II of the French crown prince. However, using forks at that time was considered an artificial behavior. If the food is not good forks, it will be laughed at when it falls off the food. It took a while before the use of forks became common.
It was not until the 17th century that the fork appeared in the UK. Thomas Coryate, a British man, visited France, Italy, , Switzerland, , and Germany in 1608. Three years later, he recorded some of his experiences in "Crudities Hastily Gobbled Up in Five" (Crudities Hastily Gobbled Up in Five). Months), in which Coat has a description of the trip to Italy:
I observed a habit in Italian towns that was not seen in other countries or any Christian country. Italians and foreigners in the country use a fork when dining, fix food with a fork, and cut meat with a knife to put it into their mouths, because touching the food with their hands is prohibited, and if they violate it, they will be rolled or scolded. The use of forks is very common in Italy, mostly made of iron or steel, and there are also silver products, but only nobles use them. The fork exists because Italians think not everyone's fingers are clean and cannot tolerate other people's touching food with their hands. I also learned that they used forks, not only did this in Italy and Germany, but also continued to use them occasionally after returning to the UK.
At that time, the British still fixed food with their hands for cutting. Koyat once joked that the person who used forks was "Furcifer", and the meaning of this word is one forks and the other is a death row prisoner. Forks were very popular in the UK because "most people think it is a kind of pretentiousness" - this was found by John Beckmann, a scholar who studied the history of invention, in the work of a playwright at that time. The description made by the tourists of the fork. In addition, playwright Ben Jonson also has a gimmick text in his 1616 work "The Devil Is an Ass": How ridiculous is the use of the fork,
from It was introduced in Italy,
wants to save napkins through this.
However, later the fork gradually gained attention. Jonson wrote in another work: "You must learn to use silver forks."
The reason why forks are useful is because of the fork teeth. How many fork teeth are needed to be the best? If there is only one fork, it is not enough to be called a fork, and it is not even better than a knife. The toothpicks used at the cocktail party also have a slightly fork effect, but it is very inconvenient to dip the lobster with toothpicks. The lobster can easily slide off, and even if it doesn't fall off, it will keep turning when dipping the sauce, and the sauce will still be Drop along the way and be careful when you put it into your mouth.But the fork with a single tines does not have no living space. The sticks that shave cream, the hook sticks that eat French snails and nuts are all single tines. After all, snails and walnuts cannot accommodate the second fork.
double-tooth fork is an ideal tool for cutting food, used to fix food for cutting and help distribute the food onto a small meal plate. This type of fork has a good function, so the style has not changed, but the forks used by individual eaters on the dining table are not the case. As the use of forks becomes increasingly common, their form continues to change to improve functionality. It was first imitated by the double-tooth forks used by chefs to cut food, and used to pierce meat. The longer the fork, the better the effect. However, dining is not as good as working in the kitchen, and there should be some difference between the two, so since the 17th century, the forks on the dining table have become shorter and thinner.
There must be a little distance between the forks to facilitate fixing food, which is an unwritten rule. However, some smaller pieces of food can easily slip through the cracks of teeth, so three-tooth forks appear, so that the food is less likely to fall in the middle when sent to the mouth, which can be regarded as a major improvement.
Later, four-tooth fork appeared. The four-tooth fork used by Germans in the 18th century is no different from what they use today. In the 19th century, four-tooth forks had become the standard form. Five-tooth and six-tooth appeared at that time, but they were not as easy to use as four-tooth. The fork surface of the four-tooth fork is a bit large and not too large, making it easy to put food into the mouth and does not create comb association. German silverware manufacturer Wilkens once made five-tooth forks, mainly based on appearance effects rather than usage functions, and the focus of product promotion is also on its special appearance. Many modern three-tooth forks are also based on the same reason. Some even win by surprise, making the fork teeth thin and curved, and losing the function of fork food.
is mutually
The evolution of the fork has affected the evolution of the knife. Since the function of fork food is very complete, there is no need to make a pointed shape for the fork to pick up the food. Why doesn’t the knife still retain the unfunctional part like some other instruments? It was mainly because of the social background at that time. People with knives not only used knives to eat, but more importantly, they used knives to protect themselves. After all, they just need to use their fingers when eating. Erasmus published a book on dietary etiquette in 1530, which pointed out: "At most three fingers are used, you can use food." It can be seen that it was etiquette to eat with your hands at that time. When using a knife, children are often scolded: "Don't use the tip of a knife to pick their teeth!" Another French student guide guides students to turn the blade towards themselves and not towards others when eating, so as not to others to feel threatened. This habit has been passed down to this day. For example, in Italy, when eating with a fork, you can place another empty hand on the table because empty hand is equivalent to indicating to the deskmate who is not carrying a weapon. Such behavior will not be regarded as impolite as in the United States.
It is said that Bishop Cardianl Richelieu hates a regular customer at the dining table who is used to picking his teeth with a knife, and asks his subordinates to smooth the tips of all the knives. In 1669, in order to reduce violence, King Louis XIV of France ordered that all sharp knives be carried were illegal. In addition, the fork gradually replaces the function of the knife, and the knife becomes the blunt-headed knife we are familiar with today. By the end of the 17th century, the blade became half-moon, and by the 18th century, the knife became less like a weapon. The blade becomes more blunt, which can make up for the shortcomings of the double-tooth fork, and use a blunt place to feed the food that is not good fork, such as beans or other smaller foods. Some knives also bend the tip slightly right so that the hand can put food into the mouth without much effort.
000 in the early 19th century, the sides of the blades of the knife in the British dining table began to be parallel, which may have been influenced by the emergence of the industrial revolution steam engine. Because it is labor-saving for machines to make knifes of this shape, it may also be that the fork already has the function of feeding, and the knife is only for cutting. This knife was very popular in the 19th century and the function of applying butter is stronger than cutting. However, unless the edge of the blade exceeds the handle, only the blade will make the upper force. Therefore, the bottom of the blade gradually became the cabochon that we are familiar with today. The upper half of the blade prevents the blade from bending, but the shape has not changed for two centuries.
The evolution of knife and fork affects each other, while the spoon is independent of the outside. The spoon is probably the earliest tableware, which originated from the shape of the hand when picking food with hands, but it is inconvenient to use hands after all. So the shells of clams, oysters and clams come in handy. The function of carapace is better to hold water and can also keep your hands clean and dry, but it is easy to wet your fingers by scooping soup, so I think of adding a handle. To make a spoon from wood, you can make a handle at the same time. The original meaning of the word spoon is wood chips. Later, it was invented that the spoon was cast in an iron mold. The shape of the spoon could be freely changed to improve function or increase aesthetics. However, from the 14th to the 20th century, whether it was round, oval, or oval, the recess of the spoon containing food. Part of it is not far from the shape of the carapace.
European knife, fork and spoon from the late 17th century and early 18th century roughly determines the current form of European and American tableware. Using a fork and left and right hands is taken for granted. Since most people are used to using their right hand, they are used to flexibly use their right hand to cut food with a knife and use their blunt hand to get slippery food with a knife with a knife with a knife with a slippery food with a knife with a knife with a knife with a knife with a knife with a knife with a knife with a slippery food. Later, the left hand was further replaced by a fork, the right hand was cut and shoveled the food with a knife, and the left hand was used to send the food into the mouth, which was not difficult for the right handed person.
This dining habit gradually became an unwritten rule before the 18th century. At that time, the fork did not matter to the front and back, but it was found that it had a disadvantage: the fork must be sent horizontally into the mouth to prevent the food from slipping down halfway. Therefore, if the fork teeth are slightly bent and the food is concentrated in the recess, you don’t have to lift the fork so high. When cutting food, it is also easier to see clearly because the fork has a curvature. In the mid-18th century, this fork with curvature and opposite sides became the standard style in Britain.
Serrated forward
Ditz believes that in the colonial era, people pressed the food with a spoon with their left hand so that they could cut it with a knife with their right hand, and then turned the spoon to their right hand (for those who are used to the right hand), and took the food with the spoon facing upward. Send into the mouth. After the fork appears, people change it to use knife and fork together. Hold the fork with your left hand to fix the food so that you can cut it with a knife with your right hand, and then turn the fork to the usual hand to get the food entrance. This statement can be proved by the earliest forks being called "split spoons". Emily Post also specially named "zigzagging" for this habit of constantly changing hands and using forks. It has been passed down to this day and is known as the so-called "expert way of eating" in Europe. Eating) complements each other.
The tableware, knife and fork used by Europeans and Americans are not the only way for civilized people to solve their diet. Jacob Bronowski pointed out: "Knife and fork not only represent tableware, but also represents tableware used by a society that can use tableware, and this society is a special society." Like the Eskimos and Africans , Arabs and Indians still use their fingers to eat, following the old rules of washing hands before and after meals. In fact, today, Westerners still use their hands to eat certain foods. For example, American burgers and hot dogs, the bread outside can protect your fingers from greasiness. The crust of Mexican shortcakes is also based on this principle. Although the effect is poor, its "carapace"-like shape reminds people of the earliest food containers. These examples are obviously for the same purpose - keeping hands clean, and there are actually different ways to achieve this.
Extension of fingers—Chopsticks
Oriental people have used chopsticks for 5,000 years. Chopsticks are equivalent to the extension of the finger. Regarding the origin of chopsticks, there is a saying: In ancient times, when cooking food in a large pot, the pot was still hot for a long time after it was cooked. People who were anxious to eat it often became hot and burned, so they used two. The branch takes the food out of the pot and delivers it to your mouth. Another theory is that Confucius opposes using a knife on the dining table, which reminds people of the kitchen and slaughterhouse, which is contrary to the "gentleman stays away from the kitchen." Therefore, Chinese food is cut into small sizes, or cooked until it can be torn with chopsticks before serving.
Chopsticks are just like Western tableware, and have been constantly improved to become today's shape - the end of the food is cylindrical, and the other end is approximately square.The first to use branches, it was quite useful to eat from a large pot, but it was not ideal in formal banquet occasions, so the branches were gradually cut into a moderate length. Later, it was further discovered that the chopsticks were too thin to tear the food in time. It is thick and difficult to hold, so it is changed to thick and thin the upper end, and the top end is made into an approximately square shape to avoid slippery holding hands. The two problems are solved at the same time.
Step by step
From an evolutionary perspective, we know that the process is full of experimental results. It is not that the inventor was confident at the beginning, but that the user constantly discovered the shortcomings and then took another step after the user continued to discover the shortcomings. One step improvement. Culture, society and technology are all influencing factors, and every step of the evolution process will affect the next step of development.
This cognition allows us to understand that the statement that "function determines form" has its shortcomings. Regardless of the difference between the East and West tableware, just looking at the evolution of knife and fork, you will know that there are more than one reason that affects the evolution of utensils.
What really determines the form of the instrument is the shortcomings found by the user. After discovering shortcomings, the functions are constantly improved. Different regions and people have different shortcomings observed and focused on, and the methods of improvement are also different. Therefore, different cultures of produce different products, and even utensils as simple as tableware do not have a single form.
The evolution of tableware provides a good example of the invention of general utensils. Technology has a considerable impact on inventions. Even the material - wood for chopsticks and metal for knives and forks - will affect the form and function of the utensils. The impact of technological breakthroughs is greater, such as the invention of stainless steel affects the price and popularity of tableware. The evolutionary history of knives, forks and spoons also illustrates the interactive relationship between science and technology and culture. In addition, political, demeanor requirements and personal preferences also affect the form of instruments, and the evolution of instruments also turns back to affect social etiquette.
But how does technology and culture interact to shape the world outside of tableware? Can we find common rules? Do high-tech products meet the statement that "function determines form"? Or is this statement just an excuse to escape the truth? Is the style of tableware constantly innovating. Is it just a business trick to lure customers to buy things they don’t need? Or are instruments like creatures that evolve at any time based on the mysteries of nature? Can "need to be the mother of invention" explain everything? Or is it just a cliché? These are the motivations that triggered my writing this book. This book starts with tableware and then mentions other utensils. I believe that such arrangements in this book will help explore these issues.
excerpted from "History of the Evolution of Daily Appliances"
[Content Introduction]
How do daily objects such as forks, pins, paper clips and zippers become what they are now? Why does the fork have four teeth? What are the advantages of cross screws compared to its predecessor flat-head screws? Why are paper clips like we are now? What makes our current tape transparent?
In this pleasant book, the author uses a microscope to see what we rarely consider in normal times. Such as pins, post-it notes, and fast food boxes that we use almost every day. At the same time, he also proposed a compelling new theory about technological innovation, as a response to defects in existing products, namely, stimulation and unnecessaryness are the mother of invention.
[Author Profile]
Henry Petroski, professor of civil engineering and history at Duke University in the United States, is particularly good at accident analysis. He is praised by the "Poet Laurent of Science and Technology" by the "Kekos Review", 2006 In 2019, he won one of the longest and most prestigious engineering awards in the United States - the Washington Award. He has continued to write columns on engineering design and cultural research for the public in the journal American Scientist, and also wrote some non-engineering articles for the New York Times, Washington Post, and Wall Street Journal .
’s main works include: Design, Human Nature, Pencil: History of Design and Environment, History of Evolution of Daily Appliances, "Beyond Design: Attempts to Scatter and Other Non-Equational Calculation", etc.Pozorsky creatively elaborated on the basic problems of abstract design by analyzing cases, comparing the differences in the shape of objects in different cultural backgrounds, and sorting out the creation and evolution of objects; on the other hand, he often used small See the big research method to reveal the basic problems of design through small objects that are often overlooked.
