A-level心理學：明顯的利他主義和進化方法的局限性

Apparent altruism 明顯的利他主義

Evolution should cause selfishness to be adaptive because it will improve an individual's survival and potential reproductive succESS.

進化應該導致自私是適應性的，因為它將改善個體的生存和潛在的繁殖成功。

But what about altruistic behaviours, in which other animals benefit as a cost to the donor?

但是，在利他主義行為中，其他動物的受益是捐贈者的代價，那麼利他主義行為呢？

Before looKing at the biological explanations for this, it is important to banish a demon. This one is called group selection (Wynne-Edwards, 1962). Animals do not gain a selective advantage by behaving in such a way that the group or species benefits. A group comprising these organisms would be open to exploitation by selfish animals.

在研究這方面的生物學解釋之前，有必要先驅逐一個惡魔。這個惡魔被稱為群體選擇（Wynne-Edwards, 1962）。動物不會因為行為方式使群體或物種受益而獲得選擇優勢。由這些生物組成的群體會被自私的動物所利用。

So 'cheats' in the population would be more successful and spread, thereby out-competing the altruistic animals or 'suckers'!

因此，種群中的'騙子'會更加成功和傳播，從而超過利他主義的動物或'吸血者'！"。

There are two situations, however, when it could be beneficial to the inclusive fitness of an animal to behave in an apparently altrustic manner. In these situations, natural selection would favour such behaviours 然而，有兩種情況，即以明顯利他的方式行事，可能有利於動物的包容性健身。在這些情況下，自然選擇會有利於這種行為:

1. Kin selection (Hamilton, 1964): If those animals receiving the benefits are close relatives they will share a large proportion of their genes with the donor (a high coefficient of relationship). 親屬選擇（Hamilton, 1964）：如果那些接受利益的動物是近親，它們將與捐贈者分享很大一部分基因（關係係數高）。
2. If the 'altruistic' act allows the recipients to leave more offspring, the donor will have at least some of his/her genes passed on. (This means that natural selction does not operate at the group level, nor even the individual level, but at the genetic level). 如果 "利他 "行為使接受者留下更多的後代，捐贈者至少會有他/她的一些基因被傳遞下去。(這意味著自然的自我保護並不是在群體層面上運作，甚至也不是在個人層面上，而是在基因層面上運作）。
3. The apparent altruism seen in social insects, such as ants and bees, can be explained by kin selection because the workers are very closely related. 在社會性昆蟲中看到的明顯的利他主義，如螞蟻和蜜蜂，可以用親屬選擇來解釋，因為工人們的關係非常密切。
4. Reciprocal altruism (Trivers, 1971): Sometimes unrelated animals may show signs of altruism towards each other. This behaviour is adaptive as long as the favour is returned or reciprocated at a later date. The benefit to the recipient must be greater than the cost to the donor for the behaviour to evolve. 互惠的利他主義（Trivers, 1971）：有時不相關的動物可能會對彼此表現出利他主義的跡象。這種行為是適應性的，只要這種恩惠在以後的日子裡得到回報或對等。接受者的利益必須大於捐贈者的代價，這種行為才會發展。

Here's a question for you: What stops a vampire bat from exploiting a reciprocal arrangement to get extra blood?

這裡有一個問題要問你：是什麼阻止了吸血蝙蝠利用互惠的安排來獲得額外的血液？

The "tit-for-tat" strategy in vampire bats is a commonly occurring example of an evolutionarily stable strategy (or ESS, for short!).

吸血蝙蝠的 "針鋒相對 "策略是一個普遍存在的進化穩定策略（或簡稱ESS！）的例子。

This means that if most of the population adopt the behaviour pattern, it cannot be beaten by any other strategy.

這意味著，如果大多數種群採用這種行為模式，它就不能被任何其他策略所擊敗。

Predictions about the way in which an animal should behave to maximise benefits and minimise costs can be made using game theory (an economic theory stolen by animal behaviourists).

可以用博弈論（一種被動物行為學家竊取的經濟理論）來預測動物應該採取何種行為方式來實現利益最大化和成本最小化。

One type of game is the Prisoner's Dilemma, which models the behaviour of two individuals who could co-operate with each other (resulting in a mutual advantage) or try to stitch the other up (a big pay-off for the successful 'cheat')!

博弈的一種類型是 "囚徒困境"，它模擬了兩個人的行為，這兩個人可以相互合作（導致共同的利益），也可以試圖縫合對方（成功的 "騙子 "會得到大筆的報酬）！"囚徒困境 "是一個很好的例子。

Limitations of the evolutionary approach 進化方法的局限性

So, we've reviewed the theory and the evidence, but what about the limitations? Most of the criticisms focus on environmental influences outweighing the genetic factors 那麼，我們已經回顧了理論和證據，但局限性呢？大多數的批評都集中在環境影響超過了遺傳因素上 :

1. Nature vs. nurture: Behaviours arise trough an interaction of genetic and environmental influences. This suggests that the evolutionary approach can only tell part of the story. 自然與培養：行為的產生是通過遺傳和環境影響的相互作用。這表明進化論的方法只能說明部分問題。
2. Cultural evolution: Behaviours may be transmitted through imitation from one individual to another, good behaviours spreading more rapidly than less beneficial ones. This becomes more common higher up the phylogenetic scale, which makes people reluctant to accept the evolutionary approach as an explanation of human behaviours. 文化進化：行為可以通過模仿從一個個體傳播到另一個個體，好的行為比不好的行為傳播得更快。這種情況在系統發育的較高階段變得更加普遍，這使得人們不願意接受用進化的方法來解釋人類的行為。
3. Some criticisms focus on the methods of the evolutionary approach 一些批評意見集中在進化方法的方法上:
4. Pick 'n' choose: It has been suggested that the examples to demonstrate the evolution of behaviours are carefully selected and that many behaviours are ignored (Hayes, 1994). 挑'n'選擇：有人認為，證明行為進化的例子是精心挑選的，許多行為被忽略了（Hayes, 1994）。

Remember that these are criticisms of the evolutionary approach as explanations of animal behaviour. The theory of evolution is not disputed in scientific circles.

請記住，這些都是對進化方法作為動物行為解釋的批評。進化論在科學界沒有爭議。